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# LIBRARY OF CONG 

I — I IWl .J 

| UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. J 

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m 






GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE; 



FOR THE USE OF 



COMMON SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES AND SEMINARIES. 



BY 



EDWARD J. HALLOCK, A. M. 

II 

PRINCIPAL OF CASTLETON SEMINARY, VERMONT. 






NEW YORK: 

DAYTON AND NEWMAN. 

boston: tappan and dennet. — andover : allen, morrill 
and ward well. 

1842, 



i» V 



W4m 



\* 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1842, by 

EDWARD J. HALLOCK, 
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 






Allen, Morrill & Wardwell, Printers, 
ANDOVER. 



4- 



INTRODUCTION. 



The author presents to the public the following treatise as 
exhibiting in his view the correct principles of English gram- 
mar, and the proper method of teaching them. There are 
several considerations which have induced him to attempt a 
work necessarily attended with so many difficulties, and re- 
quiring so much labor and careful investigation, to render it 
in any degree useful to the cause of education. Having de- 
voted several years to the business of teaching, he has had a 
favorable opportunity to examine with care most of the gram- 
mars now in use, and to know their excellencies and defects 
so far as he is able to judge correctly with respect to them. 
The views he has entertained upon the subject of grammar, 
are in some respects essentially different from those exhibited 
in any treatise with which the author is acquainted. In 
teaching this science, he has, therefore, been obliged to adopt 
text-books which, in his opinion, contained many erroneous 
principles, tending in many cases to mislead and perplex the 
young student, instead of making his path clear and easy. 
But the student is not the only sufferer. By such text-books 
the teacher is subjected to a serious inconvenience. He is 
compelled to teach what he believes to be false, or disprove 
what is inculcated in the text book, and communicate his own 
views either in verbal or written lectures. 

The author has preferred the latter course ; and the appro- 
bation which his views and mode of teaching have met, 
both on the part of his pupils and the visitors of the Seminary 
with which he is connected ; and the repeated requests that 



IV INTRODUCTION. 

he should make them public, were no slight considerations in 
leading him to attempt a task so laborious and difficult. In 
the execution of this work, the author has neither felt nor 
displayed a spirit of controversy or denunciation. He has 
aimed to explain the principles of grammar clearly and con- 
cisely, without stopping to controvert the opinions of others 
any farther than a clear exhibition of his own views required. 
Indeed he does not wish to give currency to his own work by 
unjust strictures upon those of others. He expects it will 
stand by its own merits if at all, and not by any adventitious 
circumstances that he can throw around it. 

A partial exhibition of the mode in which this treatise is 
executed, will tend to illustrate more clearly the reasons which 
have led to its publication. 

The subject-matter of this work is made to accord, as far 
as its utility will allow, with that which is adopted in treatises 
upon the same subject now in use. The author has not la- 
bored to make it singular, either in respect to manner or mat- 
ter, merely for the sake of singularity. 

But, although the general features of the plan are the same 
as those of other grammars, yet in the detail it is quite differ- 
ent. The general principles of the work are numbered by 
sections ; and under each section, remarks are introduced, if 
necessary, which also are numbered in the order in which 
they follow their respective sections. This is done for the 
purpose of referring the student to the principles which apply 
to each given exercise. At the close of the discussion of 
each part of speech, examples are introduced to be parsed 
etymologically. In order to render the exercises simple and 
adapt them to the capacity of the young student, the rules of 
syntax are not introduced into the etymological exercises that 
precede them. In syntax, etymological and syntactical exer- 
cises are united. Under each rule there are exercises of false 
syntax, which the student should be required to correct orally 
according to the rule and remarks under which they are writ- 



INTRODUCTION. V 

ten. Following the syntax, a variety of extracts of prose and 
poetry are introduced for the student to parse and analyze ; 
and for the purpose of assisting him, references are written at 
the bottom of each page, directing him to those principles of 
grammar which are applicable to the exercises written above 
them. These exercises are so extensive and furnish such a 
variety of examples, that all the principles of grammar will 
be repeatedly called into requisition ; and thus the student will 
be furnished with ample means for acquiring an extensive and 
thorough knowledge of grammar, without being subjected to 
the inconvenience of using a distinct book for the purpose of 
analysis and parsing. 

The writer has, in this treatise, introduced some alterations 
in the classification of the parts of speech. To those words 
which are usually denominated demonstrative, distributive 
and indefinite adjective pronouns, the term pronoun is not 
applied when they belong to nouns expressed or understood. 
That is usually called a demonstrative adjective pronoun, 
when it limits the meaning of a noun. But why call it a pro- 
noun 1 It surely does not supply the place of a noun. It is 
also sometimes used as a conjunction ; and why can we not, 
with the same propriety, apply the term pronoun when used 
as such, and call it a pronominal conjunction ? When the 
words above named represent nouns, the term pronoun should 
be applied, but in no other case. Such a course should be 
pursued in order to classify them consistently with the defini- 
tion given to the pronoun. 

The potential mode is not adopted in this treatise, as the 
author can see no reason for its use. Those verbs that are 
usually parsed as being in this mode can, with perfect propri- 
ety, come under the indicative. The indicative mode affirms 
or denies something or asks a question. Now what verb, that 
is usually parsed as being in the potential mode, may not be 
arranged under the indicative 1 Do not the propositions, I 
may walk, I might walk, I could walk, affirm that I have 

1* 



VI INTRODUCTION. 

power or ability to walk 1 The author does not see why they 
are not as really affirmations as i" walk, I walked, etc. True 
there is a difference in what is affirmed by the two kinds of 
propositions ; a possible action being affirmed by the former, 
and a real action, by the latter. But the difference in what 
is affirmed would be a dangerous principle to adopt in the 
formation of modes. If such a principle be admitted, there 
would be as many modes as there are verbs; for very few 
verbs mean precisely the same thing. The course here adopt- 
ed relieves the grammar from some inconsistencies which 
can easily be made obvious. According to most grammars, 
the verb, might love, is parsed as being in the potential 
mode and imperfect tense. But this proposition does not de- 
note a past action or state, which is uniformly the import of 
the imperfect tense. This verb usually denotes a present 
possible action or state. Here then is a palpable inconsisten- 
cy ; a verb which is in the present tense denoting a present 
possible action, is arranged under the imperfect, and parsed 
as a verb that denotes an action indefinitely past and finish- 
ed. It would be as absurd to say that two and two make 
five, as that the proposition, / might love, denotes a past ac- 
tion. 

The conjunctions are divided into six classes, instead of two 
which is the usual division, and which, in the opinion of the 
writer, is in many cases incorrect. As an example, take the 
conjunction that, which is sometimes parsed as a copulative 
conjunction and which is defined as connecting words or sen- 
tences by expressing addition, supposition or cause. " I have 
ever toiled hard that I might gain a subsistence." Now what 
does that denote in this example ? Does it denote addition, 
supposition or cause ? The author cannot see that it ex- 
presses either. If it denotes neither of them, the common 
definitions of copulative conjunctions are defective. That in 
the above example denotes the object or result of the pre- 
ceding proposition, and therefore it should be denominated a 



INTRODUCTION. Vll 

final conjunction. The reader is referred to the article upon 
conjunctions for further information upon the subject now 
considered. 

A system of analysis is introduced into this work, which is 
not contained in any English grammar, with which the author 
is acquainted, except one, and but partially in that. Accord- 
ing to this analysis, propositions and compound sentences are 
analyzed grammatically and logically. This system of anal- 
ysis, the author regards as one of the most valuable parts of 
the grammar. Indeed, it is his firm conviction, that it will 
assist the student more in ascertaining the relation and force 
of the words in a proposition, than the common method of 
parsing. The unusual advantages which this system will af- 
ford, were there no others contained in this work, are in his 
view amply sufficient to warrant its publication. 

To the syntax special attention has been given. It has 
been a prominent object in the composition of the syntax, as 
well as in other parts of this grammar, to introduce precision 
in the definition of rules and remarks. Those rules and re- 
marks which are clearly defined in other grammars, are in 
many cases introduced without any modification, while others 
are newly defined and corrected. The whole the author has 
labored to make concise and perspicuous. 

The materials of this grammar have been derived from va- 
rious sources. In the composition of this work, the author 
had before him most of the English grammars that have ac- 
quired any valuable reputation. He has consulted them care- 
fully and adopted, both as to manner and matter, the principles 
contained in them, so far as they would contribute to the util- 
ity of this treatise. The works from which the most assist- 
ance has been derived, are the grammars of Murray, Webster, 
and Andrews and Stoddard. There are others from which 
some assistance has been derived, but which it is not necessary 
to specify particularly. Many of the definitions contained in 
the very excellent Latin grammar of Andrews and Stoddard, 



Vlll INTRODUCTION. 

are introduced into this treatise without alteration. This has 
been done not only because an attempt to improve them prom- 
ised no benefit, but for the convenience of those who may 
pursue a course of classical study. From this work and that 
of De Sacy, many principles of the analysis have been col- 
lected, and arranged and adapted to the genius of the English 
language. 

But, while the author thus cheerfully acknowledges his ob- 
ligations to others, he does not admit that he is a mere copy- 
ist. Many principles are displayed in this treatise, which he 
has seen in no other grammar ; and the manner and matter 
derived from other sources, have been so modified as to give 
the work a consistency with itself and the impress of the au- 
thor's own mind. 

It is not the province of the grammarian to give law to 
language, but to develope and teach the principles that accord 
with the best usage. His instructions should always accord 
with reputable and general use, or the practice of the best 
speakers and writers. Of this principle the author is well 
aware, and has endeavored to be governed by it in the execu- 
tion of this work. 

Those passages which are taken without alteration, are 
generally marked with quotations or by subscribing the name 
of the author of the work from which they are taken. 

In commending this work to the patronage of the public, 
the author does not pretend to be indifferent as to its useful- 
ness and success. It would be presumption to claim for it 
absolute perfection, but he hopes it will bear the examination 
of an impartial and dispassionate mind. Should it stand the 
test of such an examination, should it receive the approbation 
of an enlightened public and advance^the cause of education, 
he will be amply compensated for his labor, and his highest 
expectations with regard to it will be fully realised. 



DIRECTIONS 

TO TEACHERS AND PUPILS. 



As the arrangement of this grammar is in some respects peculiar, 
it may be expedient to give a few directions as to the manner it 
should be studied. 

There are two courses of exercises adopted, one called the first 
and the other the second course. The scholar in commencing the 
study of grammar, should direct his attention to the sections only of 
the first course of the exercises. He should begin to parse etymo- 
logically, as soon as he has learned the definitions of the first part 
of speech. In the first course of exercises, he will see the order of 
parsing illustrated, and a reference at the close of each question is 
made to the section which will enable the scholar to answer it intel- 
ligently. After he has gone through with the first course of etymo- 
logical and syntactical parsing, he may then take the second course, 
and observe the references, as in the first course. It is best that the 
pupil should thoroughly commit the principles referred to in every 
case, so that he may have them at command when he enters upon 
exercises where there are no references. After having mastered the 
false syntax, he may perhaps profitably direct his attention to the 
analysis in connection with the exercises that succeed the rules of 
syntax. Pupils should be required, in every case, to apply the prin- 
ciples of grammar while parsing, till they have made them perfectly 
familiar. It is only by pursuing such a course, that they will become 
interested in this science, obtain a knowledge of the genius and 
power of their own language, and acquire that discipline of mind 
which a correct mode of studying it, is pre-eminently fitted to afford. 



CONTENTS 



Page. 




Page. 


Definition and Division of the 




Definite Pronouns 


64 


subject 


13 


Distributive Pronouns 


65 


PART 1.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 


Declension of Pronouns 


66 


Division of Letters 


14 


Compound Personal Pronouns 68 


Remarks on the Sounds of 




Declension of Compound 




Letters 


14 


Pronouns 


68 


Diphthongs and Triphthongs 


19 


Declension of Relative and 




Forms of Letters 


23 


Interrogative Pronouns 


69 


Rules for the Use of Capital 




Exercises in Parsing 


70 


Letters 


23 


Questions 


70 


Syllables and Words 


27 


Verbs .... 


72 


Division of Words into Syl- 




Modifications of Verbs . 


75 


lables .... 


27 


Modes .... 


75 


Rules for the Division of 




Tenses .... 


76 


Words into Syllables 


28 


Numbers 


81 


Questions on the General Di- 




Persons 


81 


vision of Grammar 


29 


Conjugation of Verbs 


84 


Spelling 


29 


Declension of Verbs 


84 


Rules for Spelling 


29 


Auxiliaries 


84 


PART IL— ETYMOLOGY. 




Exercises in Parsing 


86 


Articles 


35 


Questions 


87 


Exercises in Parsing 


37 


Participles 


90 


Questions 


37 


Conjugation of Verbs 


92 


Nouns .... 


37 


Passive Verb 


105 


Modifications of Nouns „ 


39 


Exercises in Parsing 


108 


Number .... 


40 


Questions . 


108 


Gender .... 


43 


Irregular Verbs 


109 


Cases .... 


46 


List of Irregular Verbs conju- 




Declension of Nouns 


47 


gated .... 


110 


lExercises in Parsing 


4b 


Defective Verbs 


113 


Questions 


49 


Impersonal Verbs . 


114 


Adjectives 


50 


Exercises in Parsing 


114 


Modification of Adjectives 


52 


Questions 


115 


Exercises in Parsing 


55 


Particles 


115 


Questions 


56 


Adverbs 


115 


Pronouns, 


56 


Connective Adverbs 


117 


Personal Pronouns 


58 


Modification of Adverbs 


118 


Relative Pronouns 


58 


Exercises in Parsing 


118 


Compound Relatives 


61 


Questions . . 


119 


Interrogative Pronouns . 


62 


Prepositions . 


120 


Indefinite Pronouns 


63 


J List of Prepositions 


120 



Xll 



CONTENTS. 



Exercises in Parsing 
Questions 
Conjunctions 
Exercises in Parsing 
Questions 
Interjections . 
Exercises in Parsing 
Questions . 

Derivation 

Derivation of Articles 
Derivation of Nouns 
Derivation of Adjectives 
Derivation of Pronouns 
Derivation of Relative 



Pro- 



nouns 

Derivation of Verbs 

Derivation of Adverbs 

Derivation of Prepositions 

Derivation of Conjunctions 
PART III. -SYNTAX. 

Principles of Analysis 

Subject .... 

Subject modified 

Predicate 

Predicate modified . 

Grammatical and Logical 
Connection 

Sentences 

Exercises in Analysing . 

Questions 

Rules of Syntax 

Questions on the Nomina- 
tive Case of Nouns 

Questions on the Adjectives 

Questions on the Pronouns 
and Nouns . 

Questions on the Nominative 
Case .... 



Page. 

122 
122 
123 
125 
125 
126 
127 
128 
128 
128 
128 
129 
130 

130 
131 
131 
132 
133 

135 
136 
137 
139 
139 

140 
141 
142 
143 
144 

155 

160 

167 
174 



Page. 
Questions on the Possessive 

Case . . . . 178 
Questions on the Objective 

Case . . . ' . 184 
Questions on the Infinitive 

Mode .... 186 
Questions on the Adverbs 191 
Questions on the Interjections 192 
Questions on the Subjunctive 193 
Examples in Prose . 193 

Exercises in Syntax . 198 

PART IV.— PROSODY. 
Punctuation . . . 224 
Comma .... 225 
Semicolon . . . 232 
Colon .... 234 
Period .... 235 
Dash .... 236 
Note of Interrogation . 237 
Note of Exclamation . 238 
Parenthesis . . . 239 
Other Characters . . 239 
Versification . . . 242 
Quantity ... 242 

Rhyme .... 242 
Poetical Feet . . . 242 
Metre . . 243 

Verse .... 243 
Scanning . . . 243 

Trochaical Verse . . 243 
Iambic Verse . . . 245 
Dactylic Verse . . 246 
Anapaestic Verse . . 246 
Pronunciation . . 246 

Figures '. . . . 247 
Figures of Etymology . 247 
Figures of Syntax , . 248 
Figures of Rhetoric . 248 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



<§> 1. English Grammar teaches the principles of the 
English language, and the proper manner of writing 
and speaking it. 

<§> 2. It is divided into four parts ; Orthography, 
Etymology, Syntax and Prosody. 

Remark 1. The principles of grammar are usually divided 
into two classes, the particular and universal. The particular 
principles are such as are appropriate to a particular language, 
and the universal, such as are common to all languages. 

Rem. 2. The standard of grammatical accuracy is the pre- 
sent reputable and general use, or the established practice of 
the best speakers and writers. 

Rem. 3. Principle in grammar is a peculiar construction of 
the language, sanctioned by good use. 

Rem. 4. A definition in grammar, consists in describing a 
principle in a definite form. 

Rem. 5. " A rule in grammar describes the peculiar construc- 
tion, or circumstantial relation of words which custom has es- 
tablished for our observance." 



PART I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 



<§> 3. Orthography teaches the nature and power of 
letters and the proper mode of forming them into sylla- 
bles and words. 

Remark. Articulate sounds are the elements of language, 
which are represented by letters or characters. The English Al- 
phabet has twenty-six letters that represent sounds : A a, B 6, 
Cc,Dd,Ee, Ff, G g, Hh, I i, Jj, Kk, L Z, Mm, JYn, O o, Pp y 
Qq,Rr,Ss,Tt, Uu, Vv, Ww, Xx, Yy, Z z. 

2 



14 § 4. Orthography — division and sounds of letters. 

DIVISION OF LETTERS. 
§ 4. Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded alone, 
The sound is simple, and it is begun and continued at pleasure 
with the same position of the organs. 

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and w and y in all situations ex- 
cept when they begin a word or syllable. 

When placed at the beginning of words they are consonants^ 

A consonant is a letter which cannot be sounded without 
the help of a vowel. 

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. Mutes 
cannot be sounded at all alone. They are b, p, t, d, k, and c and g 
hard. 

The semi-vowels can be partially sounded alone. Such are 
f, L m, n, r, v, s, z, x, and c and g soft. 

The letters I, m, n and r are called liquids, because they 
readily unite with other consonants. 

The letters b,f m, p and v, are called labials, because they 
are articulated by the lips. 

The letters c, g, q and j, are called palatals, because they are 
articulated by the tongue. 

The letters m and n are called nasals, because they are articu- 
lated through the nose. 

The letters d, t, z, c and s are called aspirates, because they 
are articulated mostly by the breath. 

The letters h,f, v, and hard g and c are called gutturals, be- 
cause they are articulated mostly by the throat. 

The letter/ represents the sounds of d and g soft. 

The letter x represents the sounds of k and s ; except when 
it begins a word ; as, Xerxes, 

The letter z represents the sounds of d and s. 

REMARKS ON THE SOUNDS OF LETTERS* 

A 

A has four sounds. 

1. The long English sound ; as in fane, cane, fate. 

2. The short Italian sound of a ; as in cat, hat 

3. The long Italian sound of a; as in harm, farm. 

4. The broad German sound of a ; as in hall, wall. 

B 

B has the same sound in all its positions. It is sometimes 
silent ; as in debt, subtle. 



§ 4. Orthography — remarks on sounds, etc. 15 

In some cases, it is not entirely silent, but protracts the sylla- 
ble; as climb , tomb. 

C 

C has two sounds. Before a, o, u, I, r and £, it has a hard 
sound like k ; as in coefe, can, cottage, etc. and it has the same 
sound when it ends a syllable ; as in victim, flaccid. Before e,i, 
and ?/, it is always soft ; as in civil, decency. C is silent in czar, 
vituals, etc. C in a few words takes a flat sound like that of z ; 
as i n sacrifxe, discern. C before ea, ia, it, io, or eou, when the 
accent precedes, sounds like sh ; as in ocean, special, species, gra- 
cious, cetaceous. Ch is generally sounded like tch ; as in change, 
chance, China, church, etc. 

In Greek words ; as in chyle, chorus, ch is sounded like k ; also 
in some proper names from foreign languages, ch is sounded 
like k; as in Baruch, Enoch, etc. 

In words of French origin, ch is sounded like sh ; as in cheva- 
lier, chicanery. 

Ch coming before a vowel in arch, is sounded like k ; as in 
archives, archangel, Archipelago, etc. except in archer, arched, arch- 
enemy, etc. 

Ch coming before a consonant has uniformly the sound of 
tch ; as in arch-bislvop, arch-duke, etc. 

D 

D in every position, has the «ame sound except in hopped, 
puffed, passed, etc. where it sounds like t 

E 

E has three different sounds. 1. A long sound ; as in me, 
glebe, complete, etc. 2. A short sound ; as in bed, men, etc. 3. 
An obscure sound ; as in ebony, merry. At the end of 
words, e is silent except in monosyllables ; as me, he, she, or in 
words of Greek origin ; as catastrophe, Penelope, etc., or in ere, 
gre, tre, in which it sounds like close u, as in acre, meagre, centre. 
It sometimes softens the preceding consonants ; as in grace, 
face, oblige, since, etc. Also the preceding consonant is length- 
ened by it ; as in man, mane ; can, cane ; pin, pine, etc 

F 

F has an uniform sound in every position except in of, in 
which it takes the sound of v. But when it is compounded 
w T ith another word ; as in whereof, thereof, the f has its usual 
sound- 



16 § 4. Orthography — remarks on sounds, etc. 

G 

G has two sounds ;. one hard and guttural, the other soft likej. 
Before e, i and y, g is soft ; as in genius, gesture, ginger, Egypt, 
except in get, gew-gaw, finger, craggy, and some others. G is al- 
ways hard at the end of words ; as in bag, snug, gig. Before 
a, 0, u, I and r, it is hard ; as in gave, gone, gale, glory, great. G 
before n is silent ; as in gnash, sign, etc. Gn at the end of 
words protracts the preceding vowel ; as in condign, malign, re- 
sign, impugn, etc. At the beginning of words gh has the sound 
of g hard ; as in ghost, ghostly. In the middle of words, it is si- 
lent ; as in night, right, might, etc. At the end of words it is 
often silent ; as in plough. It often has the sound of f at the 
end of words; as in cough, laugh, rough, tough. Sometimes the 
g only is sounded as in burgh, burgher. 

fit 

H has an articulate sound ; as in hay, hat, house. After r, it 
is always silent ; as in rhyme, rhetoric, rheumatism. At the be- 
ginning of words it is always sounded ; except in heir, herb, hon- 
est, honor, hour. A final h preceded by a vowel, is always si- 
lent ; as in hah ! ah ! oh ! 

I 

/has two sounds — a long sound ; as in fine, pine — short; as 
in pin, tin. It often sounds like short u; as in thirty, first — like 
short e ; as in virtue, birth. It has the sound of long e ; in ma- 
chine, magazine, bombazine. 

J 

J has the exact sound of soft g ; except in hallelujah, where 
it is sounded like y. 

K 

K has the sound of c hard. Before e and i, where c is soft, k 
has a hard sound ; as in king, kept, skirmish. It is silent before 
n ; as in knight, knock, knave. It is never double except in Ha- 
bakkuk. When c is used before k, it has a double sound, and the 
vowel is shortened ; as in pickle. 

L 

L has a soft liquid sound ; as in blame, lose, willow, barrel. It 
is sometimes silent ; as in walk, talk, half. L is usually doubled 
at the end of monosyllables ; as in bill, fill, hall. Where it is pre- 
ceded by a diphthong, the I only is used ; as hail, mail, toil. At 



§ 4. Orthography — remarks on sounds, etc. 17 

the end of words le is sounded like weak el, in which the e is al- 
most silent ; as in marble, rattle, table, 

M 

M has uniformly one sound ; as in man, mountain, mill, mash 
It is never silent. Comptroller is pronounced Controller. 

N 
N has two sounds — one pure ; as in man, not, noble ; the oth* 
er a ringing sound like ng ; as in thank. Final n, preceded by 
m, is silent; as in hymn, autumn, solemn^ "The participial termi- 
nation ing must always have its ringing sound ; as in writing, 
making, speaking." 

O 

O has a long and a short sound — long ; as in note, mote-^ 
short; as in lot, not, sot, mock. Sometimes it has the sound of 
u ; as in son, come, attorney. Sometimes, also, it takes the sound 
of oo ; as in prove, move. 

P 

P has one sound ; as in put, pen, pint ; except in cupboard, 
in which it is sounded like b. It is sometimes silent ; as in 
psalter, psalm, Ptolemy; also between m and t; as in empty, 
tempt Ph is generally sounded like f; as in philosophy, 
Philip. " It has the sound of v in Stephen, nephew." "Both 
letters are entirely dropped in phthisic, phthisical." 

Q 

Q is always followed by u ; as in quadrant, question, queen. 
Sometimes q is sounded like k; as in conquer, liquor, picturesque* 
In some words of French origin, the u is silent ; as in coquette, 
liquorice. 

R 

R has a guttural sound at the beginning of words; as in run y 
Rome, rise ; in other positions, a smoother sound ; as in nar- 
row, barber, proud. At the end of words re sounds like ur ; 
as in lustre, massacre. 

S 
& has a soft sound like z ; as in rose, dismal. It has a hissing 
sound ; as in sing, sistei; same. It has also the sound of zh ; as 
in treasure, measure, pleasure, crosier. At the beginning of 
words it has always a hissing sound, and at the end it has a 
soft sound ; " except in this, thus, as, yes, surplus, etc. ; and in 

2# 



18 § 4. Orthography— remarks on sounds, etc. 

words terminating in ous ; as in tremendous. Before ion, pre- 
ceded by a vowel, it has the sound of z ; as in intrusion, illusion. 
When preceded by a consonant, it has the hissing sound of sh ; 
as in mansion, conversion. Before e mute, it has the sound of z; 
as in diffuse, amuse ; and before y final ; as in posy ; also in 
the words bosom, desire, wisdom, etc. In the words isle, island, 
demesne, and viscount, s is silent. S, when preceded by the ac- 
cent and a vowel, and followed by a diphthong or long u is 
sounded like zh ; as in brazier, osier. 

T 

T is* sounded in tin, tame. Always before u, and generally 
before eou when the accent precedes, t has the sound of tch ; 
as in virtue, nature, righteous. " T before a vowel preceded by 
the accent, has the sound of sh ; as in propitiation," salvation ; 
except in such words as tierce, tiara, etc. and unless an s pre- 
cedes ; as in question, and excepting also derivatives from words 
ending in ty ; as in weightiest, mightiest. Th has two sounds ; 
the one soft and flat ; as in thus, weather, heathen ; the other hard 
and sharp ; as in thin, thick, breath. Th initial is short, as in 
thank, thick, thunder, except in that, then, thus, thither, and some 
others. Th final of words is also sharp ; as in death, breath, 
mouth ; except in with, both, beneath, etc. Th medial is sharp ; 
as in panther, orthodoxy misanthrope ; except in worthy, farthing, 
brethren, etc. Between two vowels, th is flat in pure English 
words ; as in gather, neither, whether ; and sharp in words from 
the learned languages; as in athirst, method. 

Th in Thames, Thomas, thyme, phthisic, asthma and their com- 
pounds, is pronounced like t. 

U 

£7 has three sounds. 

1. The long sound; as in cubic, tune, tube. 

2. The short ; as in tab, butter, justice. 

3. The middle; as in art/id, pulpit, pull. U JJ forming a 
syllable by itself, is nearly equivalent to you, and requires the 
article a and not an before it ; as unite, union" U in bury, 
sounds like short e ; in busy, like short i ; as berry, bizzy. Af- 
ter r and rh open u ; as rheubarb, rude, and the diphthong ue 
and ai take the sound of oo ; as in rue, fruit, fruitful. 

V 

V always sounds like flattened/; as in live, love, voice, vul- 
ture. 



§§5,6. Orthography — remarks on sounds, etc. 19 

W 

" W, when a consonant, has the sound heard in mine, win, 
being a sound less vocal than oo, and depending more upon 
the lips." 

W before h is pronounced as if it succeeded it ; as in when, 
ivhy, what It is silent before r, as in wrench, wrist, etc. 

W is never used as a vowel alone except in some Welsh 
names in which it sounds like oo, as in cwm. When w is 
heard in a diphthong, it is sounded like u ; as in now, brow, 
etc.; but it is often silent when joined with o at the end of a 
syllable ; as in know, blow, stow, etc. 

X 

X has three sounds, viz. ; a sharp sound like ks ; as in ox — 
flat, like gz in example. Initial x is sounded like z in Greek 
proper names ; as in Xantippe, Xenophon, Xanthus, Xerxes. 

When x ends an unaccented syllable, it has a sharp sound ; 
as in excellence, exit, and also when it precedes an accented syl- 
lable ; as in expose, expound, expunge, expand. 

Y 

Y, when a consonant, is heard in yard, youth, the sound be- 
ing less vocal than that of feeble i or y, serving only to modi- 
fy the following sound with which it quickly unites. Y, when 
a vowel, is sounded like i, as : 

1. The open long sound as in cry, chyle, thyme, cycle. 

2. The close short sound ; as in system. 

3. " The feeble (like open e feeble); as in cycloidal, mercy." 
In the same positions, i and y are generally sounded alike, 

and in the formation of derivatives, the one is often changed 
for the other ; as in duty, duties ; lie, lying ; city, cities ; tie, ty- 
ing. No diphthong or triphthongs commence with this letter, 
it being a consonant before a vowel heard in the same syllable. 

Z 

Z is always sounded like flat s ; as in freeze, breeze. 

DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. 

<§> 5. A diphthong is the union of two vowels in the 
same syllable ; as oi in soil ; ou in sound ; aim mail. 

§ 6. A proper diphthong is that in which both vow- 
els are sounded ; as ou in round ; oi in soil. 



20 §§7—10. Orthography— diphthongs. 

<§> 7. An improper diphthong is that in which only 
one vowel is sounded : as ea in eagle ; ei in forfeit. 

<§> 8. A triphthong is the union of three vowels in 
the same syllable ; as eau in beau ; ieu in adieu. 

* <§> 9. A proper triphthong is that in which all the vow- 
els are sounded ; as uoy in buoy. 

<§> 10. An improper triphthong is that in which one 
or two of the vowels are sounded ; as eau in beau, 
ious in captious. 

§ 11. Diphthongs. 
Diphthongs commencing with a. 

The diphthong aa has the short sound of a ; as in Balaam, 
Isaac, Canaan ; except in Baal, Gaal, in which each vowel has 
a distinct sound. 

At has generally the long sound of e ; as in Ccesar, paan. 
Sometimes it has the short sound ofe; as in diaresis, ccetera. 

In ay, meaning yes, a has its middle or Italian sound, and y 
the sound of open e. 

Ai is generally sounded like long a ; as in main, pain, rain. 
In final syllables unaccented, it often takes the close sound of 
of i; as in certain, curtain, mountain, villain. It is sounded like 
short e in saith, again, said, against. In Britain, like short u. 

Ao in the word gaol is pronounced like ai, and the g like j. 
Now it is usually written jail. In the adjective extraordinary 
and its derivatives, the a is silent according to Webster. 

Aw has always the broad sound of a in hall. 

Ay like ai has the sound of open a ; as in dismay, may, nay ; 
in says, it has the sound of short e. 

Diphthongs commencing with e. 

Ei and ey are usually sounded like long a in fate ; as veil, 
reign, neighbor, survey, purvey. 

Ei is sounded like e long ; as in deceit, receipt, neither, either ; 
of long i in height, sleight, Oneida ; and of short i in unaccent- 
ed syllables ; as in foreign, sovereign. 

Ey is sounded like long a ; as in convey, survey, prey ; in ac- 
cented syllables like long e ; as in medley, money, valley, alley. 

Ea is sounded like e in me ; as in creature, bearer ; like short 
e in weather, dead, meadow ; like long Italian a ; as in heart ; 
like short e in pageant. 



§ 11. Orthography — diphthongs. 21 

Ee has the long sound; as in meek, need, sweet The con- 
tractions ne\r and e'er, are pronounced as if spelled ndyur, 
ayiir." 

Eo is sounded like long e in people ; like e short in leopard; 
like long o in yeomanry ; like short o in George, and like short 
u in dungeon. 

Eu and eu> are sounded like u in rwc?e ; as in knew, grew, few, 
new, deuce, feud ; and ew is sometimes sounded like oo ; as in 
brew ; like o long in sew, strew, shew. 

Diphthongs commencing with i. 

la is sounded like ya in filial ; like short i in marriage, car- 
riage. 

Ie is sounded like long i in die, lie ; like long e in reZie/*, gn'e/, 
thief; like short e in friend and its compounds. 

ib when the i is accented, forms a separate syllable ; as vio- 
lence, violet. The terminations tion, cion, and 5ion are usually 
pronounced shun ; cions and tious, shus ; ion in minion, pinion, 
is pronounced yun ; and when 5 or x precedes, tion is pro- 
nouned, chun ; as in question, mixtion. 

Diphthongs commencing with o. 

Oa pronounced like long o in coal, boat, load, road, goad ; 
like broad a in groat, broad, abroad. 

Oe is pronounced like long in hoe, goes, roe, doe ; like 00 in 
shoe, canoe ; like u in cfoes. 

Oi has the sound of broad a and that of short e ; as in coil, 
soil, toil, broil, boil, rejoice, etc. 

Oi, when the is accented, is sounded distinctly, as in stoic, 
heroic. 

Oy is generally sounded like oi ; as in decoy, joy, alloy ; choir 
is usually sounded as if spelled quire. 

Oo has the slender sound of in coo, too, room, fool, woo, 
mood, moon, food; of u short; as in blood, flood ; of long in 
floor, door ; and nearly that of long u in good, food, wood. 

" Ou is generally a proper diphthong, uniting the sound of 
close o, and that of u sounded as slender or 00 ; as in bound, 
found, sound, ounce, thou" 

Ou is sometimes an improper diphthong having six different 
sounds. It has the sound of short u in flourish, young, tough ; 
of slender or ou in through, you, soup ; of broad a in thought, 



22 § 12. Orthography — triphthongs. 

bought, ought ; of short o in cough, trough, thought ; of oo short- 
ened, in could, would, should ; of long o in dough, though, four, 
court. 

Ow is generally sounded like ou ; as in down, crown, town ; 
sometimes it is sounded like long o, as in mow, sow, know. 

Diphthongs commencing with u. 

U is sounded like w in the proper diphthongs ua, ue, ui, uo, 
uy ; as suavity, queen, quiet, quote, obloquy. 

Uah when an improper diphthong, is sounded like Italian a ; 
as guard, guardian ; like obscure e as in victuals ; like short a ; 
as in guarantee, piquant ; and like long u ; as in mantuamaker. 
When an improper diphthong, it is also sounded like long u ; 
as in hue, due ; like short e as in guest ; like obscure e ; as in 
antique, league. 

Ui, when an improper diphthong, is sounded like i; as in 
guile, guide ; like short i ; as in guilt, conduit ; like long u ; as 
in sluice, juice, suit. 

Uy, when an improper diphthong, is sounded like long y ; 
as in buy ; like long e ; as in plaguy. 

§ 12. Triphthongs. 

Triphthongs commencing with a. 

Awe is sounded like broad a ; as in hall, fall. 

The adverb aye is sounded like long a ; as in slate. 

Triphthongs commencing with e. 

Eau is sounded like long o; as in beau, flambeau ; like long 
u in beauty and its derivations. In eou, the e is sounded dis- 
tinctly from the ou, e having a long sound, and ou the sound of 
short u ; as in gorgeous, extraneous. 

Ewe is sounded like yu in ewe. 

Eye is sounded like long L 

Triphthongs commencing with i. 

leu and iew are sounded like long u ; as in view, review, lieu, 
purlieu. 

lous is sounded like yus ; as in bilious, contagious, religious. 
When a liquid precedes it, it is sounded like short i and u ; as 
in various, curious. 



§§ 13, 14. Orthography — form of letters, etc. 23 

Triphthongs commencing with o. 

Que occurs in words derived from the French language, and 
is sounded like oo in manoeuvre. Ow is sounded like long o. 

Triphthongs commencing with u. 

Uai and uay are are sounded like way ; as in quaint, qual, 
guaiacum, Uraguay. " Uaw is sounded like wa in water ; as in 
squaw, a female Indian." 

" Uoi and uoy are sounded like woi ; as in quoit, buoy." 

FORMS OF LETTERS. 

<§> 13. In the English language, three kinds of letters 
are used : 

1. The Roman, which is far the most common. 

2. The Italic. 

3. The old English. 

Each of these kinds has two forms, small letters and 
capitals. The body of every essay is written in small 
letters ; capitals are only used as marks of distinction. 

rules for the use of capital letters. 

Rule 1. 

§ 14. The first word that begins an essay, the first after 
every period, and the first in every line of poetry, should be- 
gin with a capital letter. 

False use of Capitals. 
a lax theology is the natural parent of a lax morality, the 
evils which overtake nations, are the just judgments of the al- 
mighty, cursed is the man who trusteth in man, and maketh 
flesh his arm. 

'tis sweet, in the green Spring, 
to gaze upon the wakening fields around ; 

birds in the thicket sing, 
winds whisper, waters prattle, from the ground 

a thousand odors rise, 
breathed up from blossoms of a thousand dyes. 

Rule 2. 
The first word of interrogatives should begin with a capi- 



24 § 10. Orthography — use of capitals. 

tal letter ; unless another question immediately succeeds 
which is closely connected with it. 

False use, etc. 
what reason did he assign for such conduct? why did you not 
attend the meeting last evening ? was horace there ? did you 
ever hear mr. colburn speak ? how is your father's health ? 

Rule 3. 
Capital letters are used after exclamation points, except 
when they do not require a pause equal to that of a period. 

False use, etc. 
my friend ! this conduct amazes me I bless the lord, o my 
soul ! and forget not all his benefits ! what is more amiable than 
virtue ! who can sufficiently express the goodness of our cre- 
ator! 

Rule 4. 
The days of the week, and months of the year, should be- 
gin with a capital letter ; and also the names of the planets. 

False use, etc. 
on monday we went to the park, and on thursday we re- 
turned to lansingburgh. the eighth month is august, i shall go 
home in January, next to yenus, the most brilliant of the planets 
is Jupiter, the planet saturn revolves round the sun in a pe- 
riod of about thirty of our years. 

Rule 5. 
The names of the Deity and those of the heathen gods, 
should begin with capitals ; as, Almighty, Jehovah, God ; 
Jupiter, Mars, Minerva, Venus, etc. 

False use, etc. 
the almighty god hath said it. the lord god jehovah reigneth. 
may the goddess minerva be propitious, the god of war is mars. 

Rule 6. 

The pronoun I, and O when it is not united with h, are 
expressed as capitals. 

False use, etc. 
on this point i have but one opinion, o ! if you only knew 



§ 14. Orthography — use of capitals. 25 

how my brain is tortured ! yes — oh ! how happy i am. you 
and i understand all about these things. 

Rule 7. 

All names of continents, countries, states, counties, towns, 

oceans, seas, lakes, rivers and islands, should begin with a 

capital letter. 

False use, etc. 
the mediterranean sea separates europe from africa. the isle 
of man is in st. george's channel, he passed through washing- 
ton on his way south. he crossed the atlantic ocean in two 
weeks, we caught some noble fish in the lake bombazine, 
steamboats go down the hudson in twelve hours, the capital 
of massachusetts is boston. 

Rule 8. 
All names of religious sects should begin with a capital ; 
as, Papists, Baptists, Universalists, Episcopalians, Presbyte- 
rians, Methodists, Friends ; also the names of the different 
sects in idolatrous countries, should begin with a capital. 

False use, etc. 
the creed of the universalists favors the doctrine of universal 
salvation, those who adhere to the authority of the church of 
rome, are called papists, the friends can never be prevailed on 
to enlist in the army. 

Rule 9. 
Words derived from proper names, should begin with a 
capital ; as, Ciceronian, Newtonian, Baconian. 

False use, etc. 
who does not admire the grecian and roman heroes of old ! 
the newtonian system of philosophy has many enemies, his 
eloquence was of the Ciceronian order, he studied english, 
french and kalian. 

Rule 10. 
The names of all benevolent and other societies, and of 
festal days, should begin with a capital. 

False use, etc. 
the young men's debating society held a meeting last week, 
the maternal association has greatly increased since the com- 

3 



26 § 14. Orthography — use of capitals. 

mencement of spring. the mutual insurance company will 
make a dividend this month, the boston lyceum is quite 
flourishing, the anniversary of our national independence was 
celebrated in the usual spirit, where were you last Christmas ? 

Rule 11. 
When an object is personified, and a strictly individual 
idea is expressed, the name of it should commence with a 
capital. 

False me, etc. 
indulgent fancy ! from the fruitful banks 
of avon. 

earth felt the wound, and nature from her seat, 
sighing through all her works, gave signs of wo 
that all was lost. 

then sated hunger bids his brother thirst 
produce the mighty bowL 

Rule 12. 
When a direct quotation is made, or an example is given 
from any specified author, the first word of each should com- 
mence with a capital ; as, " Think, then act." Cicero says, 
"Take care that the republic receive no detriment. When 
the quotation is indirect, the capital is unnecessary. 

False use, etc. 
always remember this ancient proverb, " know thyself." our 
great lawgiver says, " take up thy cross daily, and follow me." 
solomon observes, " that pride goes before destruction." 

Rule 13. 
Words used to express the principal subjects of a discourse, 
and those of special importance ; also " titles of books, and 
the heads of their principal divisions, should be printed in 
capitals." When books are merely mentioned, the chief 
words of their titles begin with capitals, and the other letters 
are small ; as, " Pope's Essay on Man." Proper names are 
sometimes written entirely with capitals. 

False use, etc. 
Johnson's dictionary of the english language, rollin's ancient 



§§ 15 — 25. Orthography — syllables and words. 27 

history, bancrofl's history of the united states, opie on lying, 
andrews' and Stoddard's latin grammar. locke's essay on the 
human understanding. Stewart's intellectual philosophy. 

SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 

§ 15. A syllable is one or more letters enounced by 
a single impulse of the voice, and forms either a whole 
word or only a part of it ; as, man, manners, good, 
goodness. 

§ 16. Words are the medium of expressing thought 
and feeling, and may contain one or more syllables ; 
as, hope, happiness. 

§ 17. A word of one syllable is called a monosylla- 
ble ; of two, a dissyllable ; of three, a trissyllable ; of 
four or more, a polysyllable. 

$ 18. There are two kinds of words, primitive and 
derivative. 

§ 19. A primitive, word is one that cannot be re- 
duced to a simpler form ; as, man, tree. 

§ 20. A derivative word is derived from a simpler 
word ; as, manhood, greatness. 

<§> 21. Words are simple and compound. 

§ 22. A simple word is not united with another 
word ; as, youth, love, boy. 

$ 23. A compound word is composed of two or 
more simple words ; as, watchman, hopeless. 

$ 24. Those words that are uniformly compounded 
are consolidated ; as, schoolmaster, scholarship, pen- 
manship. Those that are occasionally united are join- 
ed with a hyphen ; as, spelling-book, singing-school. 

DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES. 

§ 25. Every word has as many syllables as sepa- 
rate vowels and diphthongs. A correct division is at- 
tained, therefore, when the consonants are united with 
their proper vowels and diphthongs. 



28 § 25. Orthography — words and syllables. 

RULES FOR THE DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES. 

Rule 1. 
When a consonant occurs between two vowels, it should 
be joined with the latter syllable ; as, desire, reform, renounce' 

Exc. In compound words the consonant is joined with the 
former syllable ; as, uneven, unoccupied. 

Rule 2. 
Two consonants occurring together adapted to begin a 
syllable, should not be separated ; as, rifle, noble, gracious. 

Rule 3. 

Two consonants occurring between two vowels and not 
adapted to begin a syllable, should be separated ; as, effi- 
cient, ebbing, error, utmost. 

Rule 4. 

Three consonants occurring in the middle of a word 
adapted to begin a word, the preceding vowel being long, 
should not be separated ; as, describe, dethrone. But when 
the preceding vowel is short, one of the consonants should be 
joined with it ; as, distrust, entangle, contract. 

Rule 5. 

If three or more consonants not adapted to begin a word 
occur between two vowels, those that can properly begin a 
syllable belong to the latter, the rest to the former syllable ; 
as, abbreviate, congress, transgress. 

Rule 6. 

Two vowels coming together and not being diphthongs, 
should be divided into separate syllables ; as, denial, society. 

Rule 7. 

Compound words should be divided into the simple words 
of which they are composed ; as, undergo, oversee. 

Rule 8. 
Grammatical and other particular terminations are gen- 



§ 26. Orthography — spelling. 29 

erally separated from the principal word ; as, teachest, teach- 
ing, teacher, greater , falsehood. 

Rule 9. 
A word at the end of a line may be divided if necessary, 
but a syllable never should be divided. 

QUESTIONS ON THE GENERAL DIVISION OF GRAMMAR. 

What does English Grammar teach? How many general 
divisions has it ? Name them. 

SPELLING. 

<§> 26. Spelling is expressing words by their proper 
letters. 

Rem. This subject is attended with much difficulty and un- 
certainty, because all do not regard the same standard and the 
same rules of orthography. Different lexicographers and au- 
thors sometimes spell the same word differently, and many words 
are not spelled according to the analogy of similar words. A 
correct knowledge of spelling must, therefore, be acquired 
principally from the spelling-book and dictionary, and from a 
strict attention in reading. The following general rules may 
render some assistance to the scholar in acquiring a knowledge 
of this subject 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 

Rule 1. 
Monosyllables ending with/*, I, or 5 preceded by a single 
vowel, double the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, pass ; ex- 
cept, of, if, is, has, yes, was, gas, his, this, us and thus. 

False Orthography. 

A staf is often a support to the aged. But the chaf he will 
burn with fire unquenchable. The mil was swept away by the 
flood. Newton was a man off wisdom. There is little attain- 
ed in any pursuit iff there be no vigorous effort. Washington 
distinguished himself ass a patriot. The nature of man iss 
complex. The winter hass been very mild. Troy wass* Hy- 
drogen gass. 

Are you studying the natural sciences ? Yess. It is hiss 
honor that he especially regards. Thiss life iss uncertain. Let 
3* 



30 § 26. Orthography — rules. 

uss not be deceived by flattery. Thuss the glory of the world 
passeth away. 

Rule 2. 

When words end with any other consonant than f, I, or 
5, the final letter is not doubled ; as, war, penmanship ; ex- 
cept add, ebb, odd, egg, inn, err, burr, purr, butt, buzz, and 
some proper names. 

False Orthography. 
Warr is a great scourge to man. A thingg cannot be and 
not be att the same time. Superior scholarshipp is attained 
onlyy by greatt efFortt. James was an od child. The seas 
eb and iloww once eachh dayy. The crocodile is produced 
from an eg. An in in Persia is similar to a tavern in Ameri- 
ica. To er is human. 

Rule 3. 
Y final, preceded by a consonant, is changed into i be- 
fore an additional syllable ; as, happy, happier ; easy, easi- 
er ; carry, carriest ; merry, merriest ; except before ing, y 
is retained, that it may not be doubled ; as, study, study- 
ing, carry, carrying. When words end with ie, the e is 
dropped, and i is changed into y ; as, lie, lying ; die, dying. 

False Orthography. 
John was happyer than his brother James. It is easyer to 
tell what we shall do than to do it. An Elephant often car- 
ryes heavy burthens upon his back. The boys are studiing. 
The birds are fliing. I saw a drunkard liing in the street. 
" By faith, Isaac, when he was diing, blessed both the sons of 
Jacob." Heb. 11: 21. 

Rule. 4. 
When y final is preceded by a vowel, it is not changed 
upon assuming an additional letter or syllable ; as, toy, toys ; 
alloy, alloying ; except lay, say, pay, from which are form- 
ed laid, said, paid; and their compounds unlaid, unpaid, 
unsaid, etc. 

False Orthography. 
Children are delighted with tois. Ye vallies rise. The 



$ 26. Orthography — rules. 31 

wais of virtue are pleasant. Monkeis in some respects resem- 
ble a human being. Pray alwais. 

Rule 5. 

When monosyllables and words accented on the last sylla- 
ble, ends with a single consonant preceded by a vowel, their 
final consonant is doubled before an additional syllable be- 
ginning with a vowel ; as, job, jobber ; begin, beginning ; 
thin, thinnish ; general, generally. But " x final, being equi- 
valent to ks, is never doubled." 

False Orthography. 
Error is often commited inadvertently. A father regreted 
deeply the loss of his son. The fear of the Lord is the begin- 
ing of wisdom. Many are admited to stations of respecta- 
bility and honor who possess neither worth nor desert He 
pened a few lives as a sample of his style of writing. 

Rule 6. 
When a final consonant is preceded by a diphthong, or 
when the accent is on the preceding syllable, it should not 
be doubled before an additional syllable; as, toil, toiling; 
offer, offering ; visit, visited. 

False Orthography. 
Toilling I cry, sweet spirit, come ! The heathen worship their 
idols with offerrings. We visitted the museum. The prolixxi- 
ly of his discourse was tedious. He grovelled in the dirt. 

Rule 7. 
Final e is usually omitted before an additional syllable be- 
ginning with a vowel ; as, note, notable ; rove, roving ; ex- 
cept when words end with le and ge ; the e is retained before 
able or ous to preserve the soft sound of e and g ; as, charge, 
chargeable ; peace, peaceable ; outrage, outrageous. 

False Orthography. 
He was a noteable man. Judas was a noteable character. 
This is a loveing child. Man is usually hopeing for the better. 
Many are chargable with crimes. A peacable temper is of 
great value. 



32 § 26. Orthography — rules. 

Rule 8. 
When words end with any double letter and take ness, 
less, ly, or fid after them, the letter is preserved doubled ; 
as, hopeless, hopelessness ; success, successful. Except ful- 
fil, in which one / is omitted. 

False Orthography. 
In order to be succesful we must be energetic and persever- 
ing ; for the hopelesness of despair accomplishes nothing. He 
acknowledged his error fuly and entirely. He fullnlled to the 
very letter, all that he had promised. 

Rule 9. 
E final is usually retained before additional syllables be- 
ginning with a consonant ; as, paleness, guileless, closely, 
peaceful ; except in a few words ; as, due, duly ; aive, aw- 
ful; judge, judgment ; lodge, lodgment. 

False Orthography. 
His features soon assumed the palness of death. His heart 
was perfectly guilless. He was closly pursued to his peacful 
home. Harrison was duely elected President. He suffered the 
awe ml penalty of the law as a judgment for his crimes. The 
flood swept away the lodgement of wood which had accumu- 
lated in the stream. 

Rule 10. 

When words end with ie, the e is dropped, and the i is 
changed into y before an additional syllable beginning with 
a vowel ; as, die, dying ; tie, tying ; lie, lying. 

False Orthog7-aphy. 
He was in a dieing situation. Having bound him to the tree 
by tieing him with cords, he left him, so that the poor man pas- 
sed the whole night in this position without lieing down. 

Rule 11. 

When ing or ish is added to words ending with e silent, 
the e is usually omitted ; as, trace, tracing ; blue, bluish. 

False Orthogj-aphy. 
After traceing a circle around the coals, he threw some fine 



§ 26. Orthography — questions. 33 

powders upon the fire, from which a blueish flame immediate- 
ly arose several feet in height 

Rule 12. 
Compound words generally retain the orthography of the 
simple words of which they are composed ; as, glasshouse, 
thereby, hereafter ; except in permanent compounds the 
words full and all generally drop one / ; as, already, wel- 
fare. In compounds connected by a hyphen, the double let- 
ter is retained ; as, all-wise. 

False Orthography. 
" He who lives in a glashouse should not throw stones." He 
went to court and therby gained his cause. We know not 
what will be herafter, and yet, already we may judge some- 
thing of the future wellfare of this country from past experi- 
ence. The al-wise Providence rules over all things. 

Questions on Orthography. 
What does Orthography teach ? What are the elements of 
language ? What is a letter ? Of how many letters does the 
English Alphabet consist ? How are letters divided ? What 
is a vowel ? Name the vowels. When are w and y vowels, 
and when consonants ? What is a consonant ? How are they 
divided ? Define the mutes. Name them. What are liquids ? 
Why are they so called ? What are labials, and why are they 
so called ? What are palatals, and why so called ? What are 
Unguals and why so called ? What are nasals, and why so 
called ? What are asperates, and why so called ? What are 
gutturals, and why so called ? How many sounds has a ? How 
many sounds has b ? Similar questions may he asked in respect 
to all the letters of the Alphabet. 

Questions on Diphthongs and Triphthongs. 
What is a diphthong ? What is a proper diphthong ? What 
is an improper diphthong ? What is a triphthong ? What is 
a proper triphthong ? What is an improper triphthong. Ques- 
tions in respect to diphthongs and triphthongs may be extended by 
tlie teacher at pleasure. 

Questions on the forms of letters. 
How many kinds of letters are used in the English Ian- 



S4 § &7. Etymology. 



guage ? Name them. How many forms has each kind ? 
What are they ? How is" the body of a discourse written ? 
How are capitals used ? 

Questions on the use of capitals. 
What is the first rule? The second? Third? Fourth? 
Fifth? Sixth? Seventh? Eighth? Ninth? Eleventh? 
Twelfth ? Thirteenth ? 

Questions on syllables and words. 

What is a syllable ? What are words ? What is a word 
of one syllable called? Of two syllables ? Of three? Of four 
or more ? How many kinds of words are there ? What are 
they ? Define a primitive word. Define a derivative word. 
How are words composed? What is a simple word? What 
is a compound word ? When are words said to be consolida- 
ted ? When are words only joined with a hyphen ? 

Questions on the division ofioordsinto syllables. 
How many syllables has every word ? What is necessary to 
divide a word into syllables correctly ? What is the first 
rule? The second? Third? Fourth ? Fifth ? Sixth? Sev- 
enth ? Eighth ? Ninth ? 



PART II. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

<§> 27. Etymology teaches the derivation of words, 
their classification and inflections. 

Remark 1. Etymology explains how one word is derived 
from another ; as, from teach, are derived teacher, teachest, teach- 
eth, taught, teaching. From great, are derived greater, greatest, 
and greatness. 

Rem. 2. Etymology, scientifically viewed, explains the origin 
and meaning of words, their composition, and decomposition, 
and their application to things according to the laws of nature 
and mind. It may be extended not only to the derivation of 
one word from another, but to the manner of deriving English 
words from foreign languages. This, however, is the business 
of the lexicographer and not of the philologist 



§ 28 — 3l. ETYMOLOGY — ARTICLES. 85 

Rem. 3. Etymology teaches also the proper method of classi- 
fying words. The object of the classification of words, is prac- 
tical convenience. The only true principle of classification is 
the meaning of words according to present use, and not accord- 
ing to their primitive meaning or combinations. Most of the 
words in the English language express different senses, accord- 
ing to their construction in sentences. Thus, but is used as an 
adversative conjunction when it denotes opposition ; as a prepo- 
sition when it is used in the sense of except ; and as an adverb, 
when it is used in the sense of only. The noun love, denotes a 
simple feeling ; but when used as a verb, it denotes the exercise 
of the feeling of love. A different position of words in a sen- 
tence, gives them different meanings. 

Rem. 4 . Etymology refers to the inflections of words. By 
inflections are meant the changes which are produced on the 
termination of words to express their different relations to 
one another ; as, name, names ; great, greater ; she, hers ; friend, 
friends. 

Rem. 5. The English language is derived chiefly from the 
Danish, Celtic, Gothic and Saxon ; " but in its progressive stages 
of refinement, it has been greatly enriched by accessions from 
the Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Italian and German lan- 
guages." 

$ 28. The different classes of words are called parts 
of speech. 

<§> 29. There are ten parts of speech in English ; — 
Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, 
Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction and Interjection. 

Remark. Words should be classified and parsed according 
to their constructive meaning. A word whose meaning accords 
with the definition given to a noun, should be parsed as such. 
One which accords with the definition of a verb, should be 
parsed as such, etc., without being governed strictly by its form. 

ARTICLES. 

<§> 30. An article is a word placed before nouns to 
limit or define their meaning. The articles are a, an 
and the. 

§ 31. There are two kinds of articles ; — definite and 
indefinite. 



36 §§ 32, 33. ETYMOLOGY ARTICLES. 

§ 32. A and an are the indefinite articles, and gen- 
erally denote one of a kind, but no particular one ; as, 
a man, a tree, an image, an island. 

Remark 1. When the following word begins with a vowel 
sound, an should be used ; as, an arm, an hour, an heir* 

Rem. 2. When the following word begins with a consonant 
sound, a should be used ; as, a house, a heart, a one, a year, a use, 
a ewer. 

Rem. 3. An is derived from the Saxon Word ane, or an, and 
denotes one. It was formerly written an before consonants, but 
now a simply is used to facilitate the utterance of words, and to 
increase their euphony. 

Rem. 4. The indefinite article h or an sometimes limits the 
signification of nouns to one specific thing of the kind; as, Sol- 
omon built a temple. A signal battle was fought at Waterloo. 
The Lord God planted a garden eastward in Eden. Samuel 
Johnson compiled a dictionary. 

<§> 33. The is a definite article, and denotes a par- 
ticular thing or class of things ; as, the rose, the man, 
the nation. 

Remark 1. The is used before both vow T els and consonants. 
In poetry the e is sometimes dropped before words beginning 
with a vowel, and th unites with the succeeding vowel ; as, 
TK embroidered vest. When elisions are thus made, a comma 
should be placed above or between the words. 

Rem. 2. A noun unlimited, is sometimes taken in its widest 
sense ; and in other cases, it denotes a part but not the whole 
species ; as, " The proper study of mankind is man." Here 
the word man extends to the whole species. Again ; " In the 
first place, woman has in general a much stronger propensity 
than man to the perfect discharge of parental duties." Here 
woman and man comprehend each the whole species of their 
sex. " There are fishes that have wings, and are not strangers 
to the airy regions." Here the term fishes cannot denote the 
whole species, unless all fish have wings. " JVation shall rise 
up against nation." " When ye shall see Jerusalem encom- 
passed with armies." In these two examples, nations cannot 
comprehend all nations ; nor armies, all armies. 

Rem. 2. Proper names are sufficiently definite without defin- 
ing terms. But when individuals possess some prominent 
traits of character, so that there is a similitude between them, 



§ 34. Etymology — parsing — nouns. 37 

this sameness of character becomes in the mental view a spe- 
cies ; and the name of an individual possessing such a charac- 
ter admits the articles and the plural number ; as, a cruel man 
may be called a Nero ; a very eloquent man may be called 
a Cicero ; a very philanthropic man, a Howard ; a distinguished 
general is called a Ccesar ; and a distinguished band of conspira- 
tors, the Catalines. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Remark. Parsing is explaining a sentence according to the 
definitions and principles of Grammar. 

" The Nation." 

What part of speech is the 9 § 30, Why ? § 30. What kind 
of an article ? § 33. Why ? § 33. To what does it belong ? 
Ans. Nation. 

" A house." 

What part of speech is a ? § 30. Why ? § 30. What kind of 
an article ? § 32. With what does it agree ? Ans. House. 

" An oak." 

What part of speech is an ? § 30. Why ? § 30. What kind 
of an article ? § 32. Why ? § 32. With what does it agree ? 
Ans. Oak, 

Questions— First Course. 
What is Etymology ? What are the different classes of 
words called ? How many parts of speech are there ? Name 
them. What is an article ? How many kinds are there ? 
What is an indefinite article ? What definite ? 

Questions — Second Course. 
What is meant by the term etymology ? What by classifica- 
tion ? What by inflections ? On what principle are words 
classified ? When should an be used ? When a ? When a 
noun is not limited by an article, how is it generally taken ? 
Does the indefinite article ever limit the noun to a particular 
thing of a kind ? 

NOUNS. 

<§> 34. A noun is the name of anything that exists, 
or of which we form an idea ; as ; man, virtue, thought, 
Eden, garden, water. 

4 



38 § 35 — 39. Etymology — nouns. 

Remark. Sentences or parts of sentences are often used as 
nouns ; as, " That scholars should obey their teachers, is indispen- 
sable." 

§ 35. Nouns are either proper or common. 
§ 36. A proper noun is the name of an individual 
object; &s, Rome, Augustine, Thomas. 

Remark 1. Proper names become common when they com- 
prehend two or more individuals, except when tbey are taken 
collectively ; as, The Smiths ; the Howards ; 

u Two Roberts there the pagan force defied." 

Rem. 2. The names of persons, countries, places, rivers^ 
streets, vessels, etc., are proper nouns ; as, Howard, Europe^ 
Boston, Hudson, Ship Albion, JYassau-street. 

Rem. 3. The names of the days of the week, of festal days, 
of the months of the year, are proper noons. 

<§> 36. A common noun denotes a class of objects to 
any one of which it may be properly applied ; as, beast , 
tree, river. 

Remark. The names of distinguished individuals with an ar- 
ticle prefixed, become common nouns, when used to denote 
others possessing similar traits of character; as, " a Howard" 
denoting a distinguished philanthropist; " the Cicero of h is age," 
a distinguished orator ; " a Bacon," a distinguished philosopher. 

§ 37. Common nouns are divided into six classes ; 
the abstract, the collective, the participial, the com- 
pound, the sentential, and the verbal. 

§ 38. An abstract noun denotes a quality or a mode 
of being or action, considered apart from the subject or 
agent ; as, virtue, goodess, haste. 

$ 39. A collective noun denotes a collection of ob- 
jects ; as, council, assembly, flock, congregation. 

Remark. Collective nouns in the singular form are plural in 
the meaning when they may be resolved into the individual 
parts of which they are composed ; as, " The council did not 
give their decision upon the question under consideration." 
The pronoun their refers to the noun council, and represents the 
members of which the council was composed. 



§ 40 — 49. Etymology — nouns. 39 

<§> 40. A participial noun partakes of the nature of a 
participle and noun ; as, " The mind is improved by 
exercising vigorously its several powers." 

<§> 41. A verbal noun is a verb in the infinitive mode 
used as a noun ; as, u To err is human." " To die is 
the destiny of all men." 

<§> 42. A compound noun is composed of two or 
more words united by a hyphen ; as, " In reading, ev- 
^ry appearance of sing-song should be avoided." 

<§> 43. A sentential noun is a sentence used as a 
noun ; as, " That human nature is the same in all 
ages, is undeniably true." 

MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS. 

$ 44. Nouns have four kinds of modifications, — 
Person, Number, Gender and Case. 

$ 45. Person in grammar, denotes the speaker, the 
person or thing addressed, or the person or thing which 
is the subject of discourse. 

Remark 1. The distinction of person is based upon the dif- 
ferent relations which the subjects considered have to the dis- 
course itself. 

Rem. 2. This distinction refers only to nouns, pronouns, and 
finite verbs. 

$ 46. There are three persons ; the first, the second 
and the third. 

<§> 47. The first person denotes the speaker. 

<§> 48. The second person denotes the person or 
thing addressed. 

$ 49. The third person denotes the person or thing 
which is the subject of the discourse. 

Rem. 1. In composition, the author is the first person, and 
the reader the second person ; except when he represents in 
his own language some one else addressing another person, 
i Rem. 2. If the speaker or writer do not wish to present him- 
self in the first person, or the reader in the second person, he 
speaks of both or either in the third person ; as, " Moses relates 



40 §§ 49 — 53. Etymology — nouns — number. 

what Moses did ;" and " Caesar records the achievements of Cae- 
sar." So, " Judah humbly beseeches Joseph, Let thy servant 
abide instead of the lad, a bondman to my lord." Gen. 44: 33. 
" Oh let not the Lord be angry, and I will speak." Gen. 18: 30. 
Rem. 3. Frequently inanimate objects are personified and 
addressed as animate, and therefore their names take the form 
of the second person. Thus by a figure of speech they are 
represented as capable of hearing, feeling, and seeing ; as, 
u Hear, O heavens, and give ear, O earth !" Isa. 1: 2. " The hills 
melted like wax at the presence of the Lord." Ps. 97: 5. " The 
lightnings enlightened the world ; the earth saw and trembled." 
Ps. 97: 4. 

NUMBER. 

<§> 50. Number is the distinction of objects, as one 
or more. 

Rem. Number is applicable to nouns, pronouns, and finite 
verbs. 

<§> 51. There are two numbers, singular and plural. 

§ 52. The singular denotes one object or a collec- 
tion of objects ; as, a house, a man, a ship ; an as- 
sembly, a company, a dozen. 

<§> 53. The plural number denotes two or more ob- 
jects not considered collectively ; as, men, ships, as- 
semblies, companies, dozens. 

Rem. 1. The plural number of nouns is generally formed by 
affixing 5 or es to the singular ; as, thought, thoughts ; sea, seas ; 
hand, hands; box, boxes. 

Rem. 2. When the terminating letter of the noun will unite 
with the sound of s, the plural is formed by annexing s only ; 
as, hat, hats ; pen, pens. But when the terminating letter will 
not unite with the sound of s, it increases the number of syl- 
lables ; as, voice, voices ; rose, roses. 

Rem. 3. When nouns end with ch soft, sh, ss, or s, the plural 
is formed by annexing es to the singular ; as, church, churches ; 
bush, bushes ; matress, matresses ; lens, lenses. But after ch hard, 
the plural is formed by annexing s only ; as, monarch, monarchs. 

R,em. 4. The plural number of some nouns ending with for 

fe, is formed by changing these terminations into ves ; as, sheaf, 

shelf, thief, wharf, wolf, calf, leaf, wife, life, knife, elf, loaf, beef half, 

self, changed to sheaves, shelves, etc. The plural of some others, 



§ 53. Etymology — modification of nouns. 



41 



having the same terminations, are regularly formed ; as, fife, 
fifes ; strife, strifes ; chief chiefs ; gulf gulfs ; grief griefs, etc. 

Rem. 5. The plural of nouns ending with ff, is formed regu- 
larly ; as, ruff, ruffs ; muff, muffs ; puff, puffs ; staff makes staves, 
except when compounded, and then the plural is formed regu- 
larly; as, flag-staff, flag-staffs. 

Rem. 6. When nouns end with y, preceded by a consonant, 
y is changed into i, and es is annexed ; as, study, studies ; beauty, 
beauties. But when y is preceded by a vowel, s only is an- 
nexed ; as, boy, boys ; day, days. (So in proper names ; as, Stu- 
art, Stuarts.) 

Rem. 7. When nouns end with o preceded by a consonant, 
the plural is formed by annexing es without increasing the syl- 
lables ; as, negro, negroes ; cargo, cargoes ; volcano, volcanoes. 
Sometimes s only is annexed, when the final o is preceded by a 
vowel ; as, punctilio, punctilios ; folio, folios ; bamboo, bamboos ; 
two, twos. 

Rem. 8. The following nouns form their plurals irregularly: 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Foot, 


feet 


Louse, 


lice 


Child, 


children 


j Goose, 


geese 


Tooth, 
Man, 


teeth 
men 


: Brother, 


C brethren, or 
£ brothers 


Woman, 


women 


' Mouse, 


mice 


Pea, 


peas, or pease 


Penny, 


pennies or pence 


Ox, 


oxen 


Die, 


dies, or dice. 


Note. 


Pennies denote real c 


oins ; pence, 


their value in corn- 


putation. 


Dies denote stamps 


for coining ; 


dice pieces used for 


gaming. 








Rem. 9. 


Many foreign nouns, 


retain their original plurals. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Thesis, 


theses 


Arcanum, 


arcana 


Beau, 


beaux or beaus 


Datum, 


data 


Emphasis, 


emphases 


Erratum, 


errata 


Antithesis, 


antitheses 


Effluvium, 


effluvia 


Hypothesis 


, hypotheses 


Medium, 


media 


Criterion, 


criteria 


Stamen, 


stamina 


Focus, 


foci 


Stratum, 


strata 


Roclius, 


roclii 


Minutia, 


minutiae 


Index, 


indices 


Genus, 


genera 


Calx, 


calces 


Genius, 


genii 


Phenomenon, phenomena 


Magus, 


magi 


Appendix, 


appendices 


Elipsis, 


elipses 


Vortex, 


vortices 


Metamorphosis, metamorphoses 




4 # 







42 § 53. Etymology — modifications of nouns. 



Singular. Plural. 

Axis, axes 

Basis, bases 

Crisis, crises. 



Singular. Plural. 

Automaton, automata 

Cherub, cherubim 

Seraph, seraphim. 



Eem.10. Many of the foregoing words occasionally form their 
plurals like English words ; as, 



Singular. Plural. 

Criterion, criterions 

Focus, focuses 

Radius, radiuses 

Genius, geniuses. 



Singular. Plural. 

Index, indices 

Calx, calcus 

Stamen, stamens, 

Appendix, appendixes. 



Note 2. Sometimes cherubim and seraphim, which are really 
Hebrew plurals, annex s to cherub and seraph, of which cherubim 
and seraphim are the plurals. 

Rem. 11. Some nouns do not admit of plurality ; as, gold, 
silver, tin, pitch, pride, sloth, hemp, barley, flour, rye. 

Rem. 12. Some nouns are used in both numbers without a 
change of form ; as, cattle, deer, sheep, kine, swine, horse, trout, sal- 
mon, perch, carp, bellows, gallows. 

Rem. 13. Hour, year, mile, foot, pound, etc. are sometimes used 
to express plurality, without a change of form ; as, six year ; two 
mile ; three pound ; ten hour. Such usage, however, is very im- 
proper, and is not sanctioned by good authority. 

Rem. 14. The following nouns have plural terminations. 
Those denoting plurality may be joined with plural verbs; as, 
annals, archives, ashes, assets, bitters, bowels, compasses, clothes, ca- 
lends, breeches, drawers, downs, dregs, embers, entrails, fetters, filings, 
goods, hatches, ides, lees, lungs, matins, mallows, orgies, nippers, pin- 
cers or pinchers, pleiads, snuffers, customs, shears, scissors, shambles, 
tidings, tongs, thanks, vespers, vitals, victuals. 

Rem. 15. The term letters, denoting literature, belongs to the 
same class ; and so manners, denoting behavior. 

Rem. 16. The following nouns have the plural terminations, 
and are mostly used in the singular ; as, amends, alms, bellows, 
gallows, odds, means, pains, news, riches, wages, bilUards y fives, scis- 
sors, measles, hysterics, physics, ethics, optics, tonics, catoptrics, diop- 
trics, acoustics, pneumatics, statics, statistics, spherics, tactics, eranam- 
ics, mathematics, mechanics, hydraulics, hydrostatics, analytics, politics. 

Rem. 17. Means is uniformly used in the singular. 

Rem. 18. Pains preceded by much, should be connected 
with a plural verb. 

Rem. 19. The names of nations and societies have the plural 



§§ 54 — 58. Etymology — modifications of nouns. 43 

form ; as, the Latins, the Protestants, The article is usually pre- 
fixed, except in direct addresses. 

Rem. 20. Ful in composition, and ending a word, forms the 
plural regularly by annexing s ; as, handful, handfuls ; mouthful, 
mouthfuls. 

Rem. 21. Other parts of speech, acquiring the nature of nouns, 
form their plural, like nouns of the same termination, regularly ; 
as, dropping, a participle, annexes an s when it becomes a par- 
ticipial noun ; as, fives, twos, two-thirds, three-sevenths ; the ups 
and downs ; the ayes and nays ; the outs and ins ; the doings 
and sayings. 

Rem. 22. Proper names never admit a plural, except where 
two or more individuals are represented by the same name ; as, 
the Casars ; the Ciceroes ; the Howards. 

Rem. 23. When two or more persons are represented by the 
same name, the title prefixed, should be singular ; as, The 
Miss Meachams ; The Miss Howards. 

Rem. 22. When two or more persons are represented by 
different names, the title prefixed should be plural ; as, The 
Misses Gould and Livingston. 

GENDER. 

§ 54. Gender is the distinction of names with re- 
gard to sex. 

<§> 55. There are three genders ; the masculine, the 
feminine and neuter. 

<§> 56. Masculine gender denotes males ; as, man, 
father, kings. 

§ 57. Feminine gender denotes females ; as, wo- 
man, mother, queen. 

§ 58. Neuter gender denotes things without sex ; 
as, a field, a house, a garden. 

Rem. 1. Some grammarians apply the term common gender 
to nouns that are equally applicable to both sexes. This, how- 
ever, is a total misapplication of terms, and is unnecessary in 
parsing the English language. The context will determine the 
gender of those names that are applicable to either sex. If 
the gender is unknown, the term that denotes the masculine 
gender should be used rather than that of the feminine. 

Rem. 2. There are three ways of distinguishing sex in the 
English language ; 



44 § 58. Etymology.— modification of nouns. 


1. By different words ; as, 






Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Bachelor, 


maid 


Launderer, 


laundress 


Beau, 


belle 


Lord, 


lady 


Boy, 


girl 


Man, 


woman 


Bridegroom, 


bride 


Master, 


mistress 


Bride man, 


bridemaid 


Margrave, 


margravine 


Brother, 


sister 


Marquis, 


marchioness 


Buck, 


doe 


Milter, 


spawner 


Drake, 


duck 


Moor, 


moorisco 


Drone, 


bee 


Nephew, 


neice 


Duke, 


duchess 


Sloven, 


slut 


Father, 


mother 


Sir, 


madam 


Friar, 


nun 


Sire, 


dame 


Gander, 


goose 


Son, 


daughter 


Hart, 


roe 


Stag, 


hind 


Hero, 


heroine 


Steer, 


heifer 


Husband, 


wife 


Uncle, 


aunt 


King, 


queen 


Wizzard, 


witch 


Lad, 


lass 


Widower, 


widow. 


Landgrave, 


landgravine. 






2. By different terminations ; 


as, 




Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Abbot, 


abbess 


Czar 


czarina 


Actor, 


actress 


Deacon, 


deaconess 


Adulterer, 


adultress 


Demandor, 


demandress 


Ambassador, 


ambassadress 


Demon, 


demoness 


Adulator, 


adulatress 


Detractor, 


detractress 


Anchoret, 


anchoress 


Director, 


directress 


Arbiter, 


arbitress 


Doctor, 


doctress 


Auditor, 


audi tress 


Editor, 


editress 


Author, 


authoress 


Elector, 


electress 


Barber, 


barbress 


Emperor, 


empress 


Baron, 


baroness 


Enchantor, 


enchantress 


Benefactor, 


benefactress 


Fornicator, 


fornicatress 


Canon, 


canoness 


Founder, 


foundress 


Caterer, 


cateress 


God, 


goddess 


Champion, 


championess 


Governor, 


governess 


Chanter, 


chantress 


Guider, 


guideress 


Charmer, 


charmeress 


Hebrew, 


hebrewess 


Chider, 


chideress 


Heir, 


heiress 


Chief, 


chiefess 


Hermit, 


hermitess 


Cloisterer, 


cloistress 


Host, 


hostess 


Coheir, 


coheiress 


Huckster, 


huckstress 


Competitor, 


C competitress 
£ competitrix 


Hunter, 


huntress 


Idolator, 


idolatress 


Conductor, 


conductress 


Inheritor, 


C inheritress 
( inheritrix 


Count, Earl, 


countess 


Creator. 


creatress 


instructor, 


instructress 



§ 58. Etymology — modification of nouns. 



45 



Male. 


Few ale. 


Mate. 


Inventor, 


inventress 


Seamster, 


Jew, 


Jewess 


Shepherd, 


Legislator, 


C legislatress 
( legislatrix 


Solicitor, 
Songster, 


Lion, 


lioness 


Sorcerer, 


Mayor, 


mayoress 


Spectator, 


Mediator, 


C mediatress 
\ mediatrix 


Sultan, 




7 


Monitor, 


monitress 


Suitor, 


Murderer, 


murderess 


Tailor, 


Neatherd, 


neatress 


Tempter, 


.Negro, 


n egress 


Tiger, 


Orator, 


C oratress 
I oratrix 


Traitor, 
Treasurer, 


Patron, 


patroness 


Tutor, 


Pedlar, 


pedlaress 


Tyrant, 


Peer, 


peeress 


Viscount, 


Poet, 


poetess 


Victor, 


Porter, 


portress 


Votary, 


Preceptor, 


preceptress 


Warrior, 


Priest, 


priestess 


Administrator, 


Prince, 


princess 


Arbitrator, 


Prior, 


prioress 


Coadjutor, 


Procurer, 


procuress 


Deserter, 


Prophet, 


prophet-ess 


Executor, 


Protector, 


protectress 


Testator, 


Quaker, 


quakeress 





Female. 

seamstress 

shepherdess 

solicitress 

songstress 

sorceress 

spectatoress 
C sultaness 
£ sultana 

suitress 

tailoress 

temptress 

tigress 

traitress 

treasuress 

tutoress, tutress 

tyraness 

viscountess 

victress 

votaress 

warrioress 

administratrix 

arbitratrix 

coadjutrix 

desertrix 

executrix 

testatrix. 



a female teacher, 
female children, 
a maid servant, 
a she goat. 



3. By prefixing a word, indicating sex ; as, 

A male teacher, 
Male children, 
A man servant, 
A he goat, 

Rem. 3. When a noun of multitude conveys the idea of unity, 
or admits of the plural form, it is of the neuter gender ; as, the 
society for the suppression of intemperance, will hold its annual 
meeting in June. 

Rem. 4. When a noun of multitude conveys the idea of plu- 
rality and does not admit the plural form, it takes the gender of 
the individuals which compose the multitude ; as, " Parliament 
is dissolved." " My people do not consider." 

Rem. 5. When the gender of the noun denoting a brute is 
unknown, or a knowledge of it is unnecessary, the neuter gen- 
der is used ; as, " If a man shall steal an ox or a sheep, and kill 
it, or sell it," etc. Ex. xxii. 

Rem. 6. Generic nouns often include both sexes, when they 
are parsed as masculine or feminine ; as, " Hast thou given the 



46 §| 59 — 65. Etymology — modifications of nouns. 

horse strength ? Hast thou clothed his neck with thunder ?" 
" Doth the hawk fly with wisdom, and stretch her wings toward 
the south ?" 

CASES. 

<§> 59. Cases denote the different relations which 
nouns and pronouns have to other parts of speech. 

§ 60. There are three cases, the nominative, the pos- 
sessive and the objective. 

Rem. The nominative and objective cases of nouns are distin- 
guished only by their position, or the sense of the passage. 
The possessive case is known by the termination of the noun. 
The cases of most of the pronouns are distinguished by their 
forms. 

<§> 61. The nominative case denotes the subject of a 
verb ; as, Charles studies ; Troy was ; Light is sown 
in the path of the righteous. 

Rem. 1. The subject of an active verb, denotes a person or 
thing of which a mental or physical action is affirmed ; as, 
" The boy plays." 

Rem. 2. The subject of a neuter verb denotes a person or 
thing of which a particular state or quality is affirmed by the 
verb and its modifiers ; as, " Washington was an ardent lover 
of his country." 

Rem. 3. The subject of a passive verb, denotes a person or 
thing that receives an action which is described by the verb 
and its modifiers ; as, " The primitive Christians were persecuted 
by opposers of Christianity." 

$ 62. The possessive case denotes the relation of 
property or possession ; as, "John's hat." ".ffisbook." 

<§> 63. The possessive case of singular nouns, is 
formed by annexing s with an apostrophe ; as, " John's 
book." 

<§> 64. When the nominative plural ends with s, an 
apostrophe only is annexed ; as, singular, " hat's ; " 
plural, " hats." 

§ 65. When plural nouns do not end with s, the 
possessive case is usually formed as in the singular, by 
annexing s with an apostrophe ; as, " Men's." 

Rem. 1. When the singular and the plural are alike in the 



§§ 65—67. Etymology — modifications of nouns. 47 

nominative, and the apostrophe does not indicate an elision, it 
should follow the 5 in the plural ; as, sheep's, sheeps\ — Dr. John- 
son. 

Rem. 2. When the apostrophic s unites with the noun, it is 
pronounced in the same syllable ; as, John's. But when the 
apostrophic s does not unite with the noun, it adds a syllable to 
the word ; as, George's, pronounced Georgiz ; Thomas's, pro- 
nounced Thomasiz. 

Rem. 3. When the noun ends in ence, es, or ss, the apostrophe 
is annexed without the s; as, "eagles' wings;" "for goodness' 
sake ;" " for conscience' sake." 

Rem. 4. " Sometimes the apostrophe and s are annexed to 
simple characters, to express plurality ;" as, 7 b's, 4 c's, 12 w's. 

Rem. 5. When proper names end with ss or x, the posses- 
sive case is expressed by annexing an apostrophe and the let- 
ter s, if their termination with the following word requires it ; 
as, " Ross's discoveries ;" " JYiles's Register." " But when their 
union with the following word does not require it," the apostro- 
phe only is annexed ; as, " Achilles' wrath." 

$ 66. The objective case denotes the object of a verb, 
participle or preposition ; as, " John studies his les- 
sons" " Having accomplished my purpose, I am satis- 
fied." " Light burst upon his enraptured vision" 

Rem. The objective case is the object of an action when it 
follows a transitive verb or participle, and of a relation when it 
follows a preposition. 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 
<§> 67. The declension of a noun is the proper ar- 
rangement of its numbers and cases. Thus : 

Example 1. 

Sing. Plural. 

Nom. mind, Nom. minds, 

Poss. mind's, Poss. minds', 

Obj. mind. Obj. minds. 

Example 2. 

Sing. Plural. 

Aom. man, Nom. men, 

Poss. man's, Poss. men's, 

Obj. man. Obj. men. 



48 § 67. Etymology — modifications of nouns, 

Example 3. 

Sing. Plural. 

JYom. box, JYom. boxes, 

Poss. box's, Poss. boxes', 

Ohj. box. Ohj. boxes. 





Example 4. 


Sing. 
JYom. fly, 
Poss. fly*s, 
Ohj. fly. 


Plural. 
JYom. flies, 
Poss. flies', 
Ohj. flies. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

u The boy reads." 

What part of speech is the $ § 30. Why ? § 30. What kind 
of an article ? § 33. To what is it prefixed ? Boy. What part 
of speech is hoy ? § 34. Why ? § 34. What kind of a noun ? 
§ 36. Why common ? § 36. - What gender ? § 56. Why ? § 56. 
What person? § 49. Why third person ? § 49. What num- 
ber? § 52. Why singular number? § 52. What case? § 61. 
-Why nominative ? §61. Of what verb is it the subject? Reads. 
Why is it the subject of reads ? § 61. Remark 1. 

" James learns grammar." - 

What part of speech is James ? § 34. What kind of a noun ? 
§36. Why? §36. What gender ?§ 56. Why, masculine ? 
§ 56. What person ? § 49. Why, third person ? § 49. What 
number ? § 52. Why singular number ? § 52. What case ? 
§ 61. Why nominative case ? § 61. Of what verb is it the 
subject ? Learns. Why is it the subject of learns? § 61, R. 1. 

What part of speech is grammar ? § 34. Why ? § 34. What 
kind of a noun ? § 36. Why common ? § 36. What gender ? 
§ 58. Why neuter ? § 58. What person ? § 49. Why ? § 49. 
What number ? § 52. Why singular ? § 52. What case ? § 66. 
Of what verb is it the object ? Learns. Why is it ? § 66. 

The scholar may parse the articles and the nouns in the follow- 
ing sentences. References ivill he made only to those sections to 
which no reference has hitherto heen made. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 
Apples 1 grow. Vice degrades the mind. John has a book, 

1 § 53. 



§ 67. Etymology — modification of nouns. 49 

The sun 1 shines. The world is. Tranquility 2 promotes hap- 
piness. Union 3 is strength. The assembly 4 is dismissed- The 
disciples 5 were persecuted. 

Questions — First Course. 

What is a noun ? How many kinds of nouns are there ? 
What is a proper noun ? A common ? W r hat does an abstract 
noun denote ? What does a collective noun denote ? What is 
a participial noun ? A verbal noun ? A compound noun ? What 
is a sentential noun ? How are nouns modified ? What does 
person denote ? How many persons are there ? Describe the 
first person. Second. Third. Wliat is number ? How many 
numbers are there ? What does the singular number denote ? 
Plural ? How is the plural number of nouns formed ? What is 
gender ? How many genders are there ? What does the mas- 
culine gender denote ? Feminine ? Neuter ? What do cases 
denote ? How many cases are there ? What does the nomi- 
native denote ? Possessive ? How is the possessive case formed ? 
When the nominative plural ends with s, how do we form the 
possessive ? When the nominative plural does not end in s, 
how is the possessive formed ? What does the objective case 
denote ? 

Questions — Second Course. 

Are sentences ever used as nouns ? When do proper nouns 
become common ? Are the names of persons, countries, etc. 
proper or common ? Are names of days, weeks, months, etc. 
common ? When do the names of distinguished individuals, 
with the article prefixed, become common nouns ? What kind 
of nouns are abstract, collective, participial, etc. ? When is a 
collective noun plural in meaning ? When unity is implied, 
what form does the collective noun take ? Upon what is the 
distinction of person based ? To what does this distinction re- 
fer ? Of what person is the author, and reader ? When the 
speaker does not desire to represent himself in the third person, 
what one may he adopt ? Are inanimate objects ever personi- 
fied ? To what is number applicable ? When the terminating 
letter will unite with the sound of s, how is the plural formed? 
When nouns end with ch soft, sh, ss, or s, how is the plural 
formed ? How do nouns that end ^ith / or /e, form the plural ? 
How are nouns that end with f formed ? When a noun ends 

i § 58. 2 § 38. J § 38. 4 § 30. 5 § (il, Rem. 3. 

5 



50 §§67 — 71. Etymology — adjectives. 

with y, preceded by a consonant, how is the plural formed ? 
When the terminating letter is o, preceded by a consonant, how 
is the plural formed ? [The teacher may repeat the singular of 
the nouns under Rem. 8 and 9, § 52, and the pupil may give 
the plurals.] Are there any nouns which do not admit of plu- 
rality ? Repeat some. What nouns are used in both numbers ? 
The names of nations and societies have what form? How 
does Jul, in composition and ending a word, form its plural ? 
When other parts of speech become nouns, how are their plu- 
rals formed ? Do proper names admit of a plural ? When a 
number of persons are represented by the same name, what 
should the title be ? How do some grammarians apply the term 
common gender ? How many ways are there of distinguishing 
sex ? Of what gender is a noun of multitude signifying unity ? 
When a noun of multitude signifies plurality, what gender does 
it take ? When the gender of the noun is unknown, what 
gender is used ? What do generic nouns include ? How are 
the nominative and objective cases of nouns distinguished ? 
What does the subject of an active verb denote ? What does 
the subject of a passive verb denote ? Of a neuter verb ? When 
the singular and plural are alike in the nominative, what does 
the apostrophe indicate, and how should it follow the s ? When 
the apostrophic s unites with the noun, how is it pronounced ? 
When it does not unite, does it add a syllable ? When the 
noun ends with ence, es, or ss, how is the apostrophe annexed ? 
If proper nouns end with ss or x, how is the possessive case ex- 
pressed ? 

ADJECTIVES. 

§"68. An adjective is a word prefixed to a noun or 
pronoun to qualify it, or limit its meaning ; as, a good 
man ; an indusMous student. 

§ 69. u Adjectives are not varied on account of gen- 
der, number or case." 

§ 70. There are eight classes of adjectives ; the com- 
mon, the proper, the numeral, the definite, the distribu- 
tive, the indefinite, the compound and the participial. 

§ 71. A common adjective, qualifies a noun or pro- 
noun, or defines its situation ; as, " a pure mind ; " a 
kind man ; " southern states ; " northern regions ; the 
eastern continent." 



§§ 72—77. Etymology — adjectives. 51 

§ 72. A proper adjective is formed from a proper 
noun, and denotes the peculiar qualities or condition of 
the person or thing expressed by the noun ; as, Eng- 
lish, French, Roman, Baconian, Newtonian, Ameri- 
can^ etc. 

§ 73. A numeral adjective limits the noun to a spe- 
cific number ; as, one, two, three, four, etc. 

Rem. There are two classes of numeral adjectives, viz. ordi- 
nal and cardinal, 

1. Ordinal, are used for numbering ;. as, first, second, third, 
fourth, etc. 

2. Cardinal, are used for counting; as, one, two, three, four, 
etc. 

$ 74. A definite adjective distinguishes nouns spe- 
cifically. They are this and that ; these and those ; 
former and latter. 

Rem, This, these and latter, denote the nearest person or 
thing mentioned; that, those and former, the more distant 

$ 75. A distributive adjective, denotes each one of 
a number considered separately. They are, each, every, 
either and neither. 

ff*§> 76. An indefinite adjective expresses its subjects 
indefinitely. They are, some, one, any, other, all, 
such, both, same, another, none, and sometimes which 
and what. 

Rem. 1. When the definite, distributive and indefinite adjec- 
tives represent nouns, they should be regarded and parsed as 
pronouns. When they define nouns expressed or understood, 
they should be parsed as described above. 

Rem. 2. The definite, distributive and indefinite adjectives, are 
called by some grammarians pronominal adjectives ; but the 
term pronominal should not be applied when they are used 
simply as definitives. The term pronoun denotes a word stand- 
ing in the place of a noun, and should be applied to the above 
adjectives only when they are used as substitutes. 

<§> 77. A compound adjective, is composed of two 
or more words united by a hyphen ; as, cloud-capt, 
rock-bound, high-handed. 



52 §§ 78 — 84. Etymology — adjectives. 

Rem. Compound adjectives are not susceptible of the degrees 
of comparison ; as, well-formed. 

<§> 78. A participial adjective, partakes of the na- 
ture of a participle and also of an adjective ; as, a 
i hriving man ; a charming boy; an alluring scene. 

MODIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 

<§> 79. The different qualities of things are generally 
expressed by the degrees of comparison. 

§ 80. There are four degrees of comparison ; viz., 
the indefinite, the positive, the comparative and the 
superlative. 

Rem. The four degrees of comparison as above, are suffi- 
ciently numerous to express the most obvious relations of things 
compared. They, however, come far short of denoting all the 
minute degrees that exist in the comparison of things. The 
degrees are as numerous as the relations of things compared 
are endless. An ocean is larger than a lake. This is a gen- 
eral comparison ; but a more minute comparison would show 
how many more square feet or inches the surface of the ocean 
contained than that of the lake. But it would be both useless 
and contrary to the genius of language, to apply distinct terms 
to every minute degree of comparison of which it is suscepti- 
ble. 

§81. The indefinite, expresses a slight degree of 
the quality, and is distinguished by the termination 
ish ; as, greenish, yellowish, brownish, reddish, etc. 

Rem. The indefinite degree of comparison is also expressed 
by such words as rather, considerably, quite, etc. ; as, rather dark, 
considerably dark, quite dark. 

§ 82. The positive denotes a distinct quality ; as, 
green, yellow, red, brown, great, wise, etc. 

§ 83. The comparative denotes a greater or less de- 
gree of quality than exists in another object with which 
it is compared ; as greater, wiser, better, redder, 
browner, etc. 

§ 84. The superlative degree denotes the highest or 



§§ 85 — 88. Etymology — adjectives. 53 

lowest degree of a quality ; as, greatest, reddest, brown- 
est, least, last, worst. 

Rem. 1. Some adjectives are always in the superlative degree, 
because they express the highest quality and extent of things 
without change or form ; as, boundless, ceaseless, infinite, chief, 
extreme, supreme, unparalleled, unlimited, omnipotent, all-wise, eter- 
nal, etc. 

Rem. 2. Numeral, proper, definite, indefinite and distributive 
adjectives are incomparable. 

Rem. 3. Adjectives denoting the quality of figures abstractly 
considered, are not susceptible of comparison, but in common 
parlance, they are used comparatively ; as, straight, true, square, 
round, full, circular, holy. It is often said, this stick is straighter 
than that ; this tumbler is fuller than that ; this figure is more 
circular, oblong or square than that. In these expressions, it is 
not meant that the abstract quality of the figure is increased, 
but that there is an approximation to it. 

<§> 85. The indefinite degree, is formed by annexing 
ish to the simple form of the word ; as, yellow, yellow- 
ish ; red, reddish ; brown, brownish, etc. 

§ 86. The comparative is formed by annexing r to 
the positive adjective ending with e ; as, white, whiter ; 
close, closer ; and er, when it ends with a consonant ; 
as, sweet, sweeter ; small, smaller. 

§ 87. The superlative degree is formed by annexing 
st to the adjectives ending with e ; as, wise, wisest ; 
close, closest ; wide, widest ; and est, when they end 
with a consonant ; as, reddest, smallest, greatest, etc. 

<§> 88. Adjectives are sometimes compared by prefix- 
ing the adverbs more and most, less and least ; as, 
more wise, most wise ; less wise, least wise ; less love- 
ly, least lovely, etc. 

Rem. 1. Adjectives of more than one syllable are usually 
compared by abverbs ; as glorious, more glorious, most glorious ; 
gracious, more gracious, most gi-acious ; except dissyllables end- 
ing with y mute ; as, happy, happier, happiest. 

Rem. 2. When an adjective ends with y preceded by a con- 
sonant, i is substituted for it, before er and est ; as, mighty, might- 
ier, mightiest. 

5* 



54 



§ 89. Etymology — adjectives. 



<§> 89. A few adjectives express the degrees of com- 
parison by irregular terminations ; as, 

better, best, 

former, first, 

worse, worst, 

less, least. 



Good, 

Evil or bad, 

Little, 

Near, 

Much or many, 

Late, 

Old, 



nearer, 



more, 
later, 
older or elder, 



nearest and next. 

most. 

latest or last. 

oldest or eldest. 



Rem. 1. The words much, more and most ; little, less and least, 
are adjectives only when they are prefixed to nouns ; as, much 
labor ; more labor ; most labor ; little study ; less study ; least study. 

Rem. 2. When the definite article the is prefixed to an adjec- 
tive without a noun, the adjective usually becomes a noun, and 
should be parsed as such ; as, " Providence rewards the good, 
and punishes the bad" Sometimes adjectives are used as nouns 
without the article ; as, little can be done on the present occa- 
sion ; both have gone to the city. 

Rem. 3. The following adjectives have more than one super- 
lative, and some of them more than one comparative ; as, 

Out, outer or utter, outermost or utmost or uttermost. 

In, inner, inmost or innermost. 

Up, upper, uppermost or upmost. 

Hind, hinder, hindmost or hindermost. 

Low, lower lowest or lowermost. 

Far or forth, farther or further, farthest or furthest or foremost or 

furthermost. 

Rem. 4. The following adjectives have no comparative ; as, 



South, 

North, 

Northern, 

Southern, 

Eastern, 

Western, 



southmost 

northmost 

northernmost 

southernmost 

easternmost 

westernmost 



Mid, 

Front, 

Rear, 

Head, 

Down, 

Side. 



midmost 

frontmost 

rearmost 

headmost 

downmost 

sidemost. 



The following have no positive; as, 

nethermost I Under, 

hithermost After, 



undermost 
aftermost. 



Rem. 5. 

Nether, 
Hither, 

Rem. 6. Aside from the degrees of comparison, adjectives are 
modified in a variety of ways by other words ; as, very far ; ex- 
treme 1 ^ studious ; exceedingly penurious ; far distant ; extremely 
wise ; much learned. Most of the modifiers in ly, are some- 
times thus used. 

Rem. 7. Adjectives of the comparative degree, admit the con- 



§ 89. Etymology — parsing. 55 

junction than to commence the last part of the comparison ; as, 
" virtue is better than riches ;" except, after and hither ; outer or 
utter ; former and latter or hinder ; inner and outer; upper and 
under or nether ; major and minor ; senior, prior and ulterior ; 
anterior and posterior ; interior and exterior ; superior and in- 
ferior. 

Rem. 8. Nouns are often used as adjectives, but are not com- 
parable ; as, meadow ground ; wine cask ; sea fish ; iron wedge ; 
cane field. 

Rem. 9. Many irregular adjectives are joined in composition 
with other words, and are used as nouns, adverbs or preposi- 
tions, as their construction in sentences requires ; as, beforehand, 
front-room, head-ache, rear-rank, inland, after-ages, mid-ship, left- 
handedness, right-handedness, bottom lands, out-post, high-land, low- 
land, upland, downhill. 

Rem. 10. Proper and numeral adjectives are never compared. 

Rem. 11. Own is an intensive adjective. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

" Fragrant flower." 

What part of speech is fragrant? §68. Why? 68. What 
kind of an adjective is it? §71. Why common? §71. What 
degree of comparison ? § 82. Why ? § 82. To what does it 
belong ? Flowers, 

" Happier life." 

What part of speech is happier ? § 68. Why ? § 68. What 
degree of comparison ? §86. Why? §86. 

" Sweetest increase." 

What part of speech is sweetest ? § 68. Why ? § 68. What 
degree of comparison ? § 87. Why ? § 87. Parse the articles, 
nouns, and adjectives in the following examples. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

A better 1 world 2 is above. The noblest prospect is before us. 
An obedient son honors his father. An affectionate parent 
cherishes his children. 3 Monday 4 is past January is the first 
month in the year. 5 Christmas occurs the twenty-fifth 6 of No- 
vember. This 7 apple is good, that 7 is bad. Such 8 people are 
well instructed. The Newtonian 9 system is admired by many. 
A sea-faring 10 life is dangerous. Two 11 persons were seen at 

1 § 89. 2 § 61. 3 § 66. 4 § 36. 5 § 66. 6 § 73, and Rem. 1, 
7 § 74. 8 § 76. 9 § 72. 10 § 77. " § 73, and Rem. 2. 



5"6 § 90. Etymology — pronouns. 

my door. Each 1 man must account for himself. The apple is 
reddish. 2 This is a charming 3 boy. 

. Questions — First Course. 

What is an adjective ? How are adjectives varied ? How 
many classes of adjectives are there ? Name them. Define a 
common adjective ; a proper adjective ; a numeral adjective ; 
a definite adjective ; a distributive adjective ; an indefinite ad- 
jective ; a compound adjective ; a participial adjective. How 
are the qualities of adjectives expressed ? How many de- 
grees of comparison are there ? What does the indefinite 
degree express ? the positive ? the comparative ? the superla- 
tive ? How is the indefinite degree formed ? the comparative ? 
the superlative ? How are adjectives sometimes compared ? 
Compare the adjectives under § 89. 

Questions — Second Course. 

How many classes -of numeral adjectives are there ? Define 
ordinal ; cardinal. What do this, these and latter denote ? that, 
those and former ? Repeat Rem. 1, § 76. What are these ad- 
jectives called by some grammarians ? State objections to this. 
Can compound adjective pronouns be compared ? Give the 
substance of Rem. 1, §80. What other method of distinguish- 
ing the indefinite degree of comparison ? Why are some ad- 
jectives always in the superlative degree ? What adjectives are 
not compared ? Are adjectives denoting qualities of figures 
ever compared ? How are adjectives of more than one syllable 
usually compared ? When the adjective ends with y preceded 
by a consonant, how is the comparison made ? When are much, 
more, most, little, less and least adjectives ? When the definite 
article the is prefixed to an adjective without a noun, what is the 
adjective ? Are adjectives ever modified in any other way, than 
by degrees of comparison ? When do adjectives of the com- 
parative degree admit of the conjunction than ? Are nouns, 
used as adjectives, comparable ? Are irregular adjectives ever 
joined in composition? Are proper and numeral adjectives 
ever compared ? What is own ? 

PRONOUNS. 

<§> 90. A pronoun is a word that supplies the place 
of a noun, and is used to prevent its too frequent repe- 

*§ 75. 2 § 81. 3 § 76. 



§§ 91 — 93. Etymology — pronouns. 57 

tition ; as, " The man is happy ; he is benevolent ; he 
is useful." 

<§> 91. A pronoun often supplies the place of preced- 
ing sentences ; as, " The Jews, it is well known, were 
at this time under the dominion of the Romans." 

Here it denotes the whole sentence except the clause is well 
known. 

u Shall wor'dly glory, impotent and vain, 
That fluctuates like the billows of the main ; 
Shall this with more respect thy bosom move, 
Than zeal for crowns that never fade above ? 
Avert it heaven V] — Poole's Tasso. 

Here the four preceding lines are represented by it. 

<§> 92. The noun that is represented by a pronoun 
usually precedes it, and is called the antecedent. 

Rem. 1. The pronoun it, often precedes the clause or sen- 
tence it represents, and hence it is called an inceptive pronoun ; 
as, "It is remarkable, that the philosopher Seneca makes use of 
the same argument." Here the last clause of the sentence is 
represented by it. 

Rem. 2. It also begins a sentence when the name of a person, 
either of the masculine or feminine gender, or of the singular 
or plural number succeeds the verb ; as, " It was Mary who be- 
dewed the Saviour's feet with her tears." 

Rem. 3. In like manner it begins a sentence when the verb 
is followed by masculine or feminine pronouns either of the 
singular or plural number or of either person ; as, "It was they 
who executed the fearful deed." 

<§> 93. The noun that is represented by an interroga- 
tive pronoun, is contained in the answer to the question, 
expressed or implied ; as, " Whose book is this ? — 
John's" " Who can find out the Almighty unto per- 
fection ?" 

Rem. 1. Nouns denoted by the pronouns I and thou, and 
their various modifications, are generally not expressed, because 
the speaker represented by / and ive and the person addressed by 
thou and ye or you, are always present or supposed to be pre- 
sent. 

Rem. 2. When J and the name of the person are both ex- 



58 §§ 94 — 99. Etymology — relative pronouns. 

pressed, the pronoun precedes the noun. The same is true in 
respect to the pronoun we, ye or you. 

Rem. 3. In the singular, thou is used in the solemn style, and 
you in common parlance. In the plural, ye is used in the grave 
style, and you in familiar style. 

Rem. 4. In common parlance you is used in the singular as 
well as in the plural, and when it represents a singular noun, 
the verb with which it agrees, must have the plural form. 

Rem. 5. He, she and they and their different modifications, are 
sometimes used indefinitely ; as, " He is wise who lives virtu- 
ously." 

Rem. 6. The personal and interrogative pronouns are some- 
times used as antecedents to the relatives who and that ; as, 
" He that hath ears to hear, let him hear." 

§ 94. There are three kinds of pronouns ; the per- 
sonal, the relative and the interrogative. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

<§> 95. Personal pronouns denote by their form the 
number and person of the nouns they represent. 

<§> 96. The personal pronouns are divided into sim- 
ple and compound. 

§ 97. There are five simple personal pronouns, I, 
thou, he, she, it, and also their plurals, we, ye or you 
and they. He denotes the masculine gender, she, the 
feminine, it, the neuter. The others have the same 
gender as their antecedents, /is the first person, thou 
is the second, he, she or it is the third. 

§ 98. There is an equal number of compound pro- 
nouns, myself, thyself, himself, herself and itself. 
Their plurals are, ourselves, yourselves and themselves. 

Rem. The compound pronouns sometimes succeed the sim- 
ple pronouns to render them more emphatic ; as, I myself am 
free from the suspicion of crime ; Thou thyself; We ourselves ; 
They themselves. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

<> 99. Relative pronouns relate to an antecedent 
without denoting by their forms its number or person. 



§§ 100 — 104. Etymology — Relative pronouns. 59 

Rem. The gender and number of relative pronouns are the 
same as those of their antecedents. 

<§> 100. There are two kinds of relative pronouns ; 
viz., simple and compound. 

<§> 101. The simple relatives are who, which and 
that. 

§ 102. Who represents only masculine and feminine 
nouns, except when inanimate objects are personified. 

Rem. 1. Who should not be applied to children. It is impro- 
per to say, bring me the child who is so beautiful. That should 
be used instead of who. 

§ 103. Which in modern use, is usually applied to 
animals or things. In the scriptures, however, it is ap- 
plied to persons. 

Rem. 1. When we wish to distinguish one person from two or 
more, ivhich may be used as referring to persons ; as, " Which of 
the two brothers are graduates ?" " Which of them is he ?" 

Rem. 2. Whether is sometimes used for which in the same 
construction ; as, " Whether of them did the will of his father ?" 
Matt. 21 : 31. 

Rem. 3. Which is often prefixed to nouns denoting persons 
or things, as interrogative adjectives ; as, " Which man do you 
refer to ?" " Which interest most claims our attention ?" 

Rem. 4. Which is often a substitute for a sentence or a part 
of a sentence ; as, " If there could be any other way of show- 
ing how men may come to a universal agreement in the things 
they do consent in, ivhich I presume may be done." " We shall 
find the reasons of it to be the end of language, which being to 
communicate thoughts." In the former examples, which refers 
to all that precedes it as an antecedent ; and in the latter, which 
refers only to the phrase end of language as its antecedent. 

<§> 104. That is applicable either to persons or things, 
and has only two cases, the nominative and objective. 

Rem. 1. That is used for four parts of speech, relative pro- 
noun, definite pronoun, definite adjective and conjunction. The 
last three are treated of in their appropriate places. 

Rem. 2. That is a relative when its place may be supplied 
by who, whom or which. 



60 § 104. Etymology— Relative pronouns. 

Rem. 3. In the following examples, the use of that is prefera- 
ble to who, whom or which 

1. After the interrogatives who and which, to prevent their too 
frequent repetition ; as, " Who that is a patriot can think light- 
ly of the soil that gave him birth ?" 

2. After an adjective in the superlative degree ; as, " Cata- 
line's followers were the most corrupt that could be found at 
Rome." 

3. After same ; as, " This is the same lesson that you endea- 
vored to learn last week. 

4. After two or more antecedents of different genders con- 
nected by the copulative and; as, " The woman and the estate 
that became his portion, were too much for his moderation." 

5. After a collective noun as an antecedent, when it has no 
definite reference to individuals ; as, " The multitude that as- 
sembled yesterday, will not be assembled again." 

Rem. 4. As, generally used as a conjunction, as an adverb or 
a connective adverb, should be construed as a relative pronoun 
after such and same when they can be changed into ivho, whom, 
which or that, and the terms such and same which define its ante- 
cedents, may be changed into the, that or those, without altering 
the sense; as, " Participles have the same governmental the verbs 
from which they are derived." "Send him such books as will 
please him." " We have been accustomed to repose on its 
veracity with such humble confidence as surprises curiosity." 
" The malcontents made such demands as none but a tyrant 
could refuse." 

Rem. 5. In the preceding examples some grammarians deem 
it better in the example, " Send him such books as will please 
him," that an ellipsis like the following should be adopted ; 
" Send him such books as those hooks are ivhich will please him." 
This ellipsis, however, is not necessary to make the meaning 
plain and therefore should not be adopted. 

Rem. 6. When which is in the objective case it always pre- 
cedes the verb that governs it. 

Rem. 7. As is sometimes a relative pronoun when it is not 
preceded by such or same, but refers to a sentence or part of 
a sentence, as an antecedent ; as, " I am a linen draper bold, 
as you and all the world doth know." 

Rem. 8. As sometimes supplies the place of such, or such as ; 
as, 

" From whence might contests spring and mutual rage, 
As would the camp in civil broils engage." 



§§ 105, 106. Etymology— pronouns. 61 

<§> 105. The compound relative pronouns are what, 
whatever, whatsoever, whoever and whosoever, which- 
ever and whichsoever. 

COMPOUND RELATIVES. 
$ 106. What is usually a compound relative, includ- 
ing both the antecedent and the relative, and is equiva- 
lent to that which ; as, " Give me ivhat I want ; i. e, 
that which or the thing which I want. Here that 
stands for the thing, and which is a relative pronoun 
and refers to it as its antecedent. That is parsed as a 
noun, and which as a relative pronoun. 

Rem. 1. What is sometimes used in the plural and represents 
those which ; as, " But let us consider his faults, or what may ap- 
pear such," or those which may appear such. 

Rem. 2. What is sometimes equivalent to a definite adjective 
that or those and the relative who or which, according as the 
sense requires ; as, " what virtue we possessed is lost ;" i. e. 
that virtue which we possessed is lost. In such a construction, 
a noun follows ivhat, with which the definite adjective always 
agrees. 

Rem. 3. What is often used as an indefinite adjective ; as, 
" It is not material what names are assigned to them." When 
it is used in this construction in a question, it is an interroga- 
tive adjective ; as, " what man is that ?" 

Rem. 4. What is occasionally used as an interjection ; as, 
"What ! Enslave a Roman !" ''What ! Shall we yield up tamely 
our dearest rights ?" 

Rem. 5. " WJiat is used by the poets, preceding a noun, for 
that or that which, but its place cannot be supplied by these 
words, without a noun between them ;" as, 

" What time withdrew his cheerful light, 
And sought the sable caverns of the night.'' 

Rem. 6. What is sometimes used as an adverb ; and when so 
used, it means how, in what respects, or partly ; as, " What with 
bad lodging and barbarous lodging, they could hardly sleep all 
the time of their stay." " What shall it profit a man, if he shall 
gain the whole world, and lose his own soul?" — Mark 8: 36. 
" The year before he had so used the matter, that what by force, 
what by policy, he had taken from the Christians' abode thirty 
small castles." — Knowles. 

6 



62 § 107. Etymology — pronouns. 

Rem. 7. IVhatever and whatsoever have essentially the same 
meaning as what; and when used as compound relatives, are 
equivalent to any or every thing which ; as, " whatever we do, 
should be well done," i. e. any or every thing we do, should be 
well done. The antecedent in this case is the indefinite adjec- 
tive any or every, and thing ; and ivhich is the relative. 

Rem. 8. Whoever, whoso, and whosoever are sometimes used as 
compound relatives and equivalent to any or every perscn who ; 
as, " Whoever, whoso or whosoever takes an oath is bound by it ;" 
i. e. any or every person who, etc. 

Rem. 9. Whichever and ivhichsoever are not thus analyzed. 

Rem. 10. In the analysis of these words, the adverbs are not 
regarded. 

Rem. 11. Whatever and whatsoever, whichever and ivhichsoever, 
like what, are % sometimes equivalent to the relative who or ivhich 
and the definite article the, or the definite adjectives that or those ; 
as, " In whatever character Butler was admitted, is unknown ; 
give him what name you choose ;" i. e. the or that character in 
which Butler was, etc. "Nature's care endows whatever happy 
man will deign to use her treasures ;" i. e. nature's care en- 
dows the or that happy man who will deign, etc. " Let him take 
whichever course he will ;" i. e. let him take the or that course 
which he will. 

Rem. 12. Who, whoever, whoso, whosoever, whatever and whatso- 
ever, are sometimes indefinite pronouns; as, "I know who is 
coming." Here who means what person. " The cause is un- 
just, whoever may pursue it ;" i. e. whatever person may pursue it. 
" IVhatever gravity may be, it is plain that it acts every moment 
of time ;" i. e. whatever thing gravity may be, etc. 

Rem. 13. Whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever, are some- 
times indefinite adjectives ; gdfr, " Whichever way you take, you 
will be pursued;" whichever means the same as whichsoever. 
" Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things 
are honest, whatsoever things are just, whatsoever things are lovely, 
whatsoever things are of good report." Phil. 4: 8. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

<§> 107. Interrogative pronouns are used to ask ques- 
tions and relate to some noun, pronoun, sentence or 
part of a sentence contained in the answer to the ques- 
tion, as their subsequents ; as, Who is he ? John. 



§§ 108 — 110. Etymology — pronouns. 63 

Remark. The noun, pronoun, sentence or part of a sentence is 
called the subsequent because it follows the interrogative. 

<§> 108. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, 
what, whose and whom. 

Remark. What is used only in the nominative and objective 
cases ; ivho and which are declined as other pronouns. 

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

<5> 109. Indefinite pronouns are such as denote per- 
sons or things generally, without indicating a particular 
individual. 

§ 110. The indefinite pronouns are some, one, any, 
other, another, all, such, none, both and same. 

Rem. 1. The indefinite pronouns are not modified like per- 
sonal pronouns by declension, number and person ; except one, 
other and another. One is used in the possessive case ; as, "One's 
person is to be protected by law." It is also used in the plural ; 
as, "I have commanded my sanctified ones, and I have called 
my mighty ones" " The great ones of the earth." 

Rem. 2. Other is used in both numbers, and is regularly de- 
clined. It is often opposed to one ; as, " All rational or deduc- 
tive evidence is derived from one or the other of these two 
sources." Another is composed of the indefinite article an, 
which etymologically means one and other, and denotes one other, 
It is often used as a substitute ; as, " Let another praise thee, 
and not thine own mouth." It sometimes is used in the pos- 
sessive case; as, "Attend to thine own concerns and not to 
another's." One and other when contrasted sometimes repre- 
sent plural nouns, and requires a plural verb ; as, "The reason 
why the one are ordinarily taken for real qualities, and the other 
only for bare powers, seems to be." — Locke. 

Rem. 3. One another and each other are reciprocal indefinite 
pronouns, and answer to the Gieek reciprocal allelon. 

Rem. 4. One and another are used together to distribute a plu- 
ral number collectively denoted by an antecedent noun or pro- 
noun among the several individuals constituting that number; as, 
" Let us love one another." " Many men contend with one another, 
without any real cause." 

Rem. 5, Each and other are generally used when only two 



64 §§ 11]^ 112. Etymologf — pronouns. 

persons or things are referred to ; as, David and Jonathan loved 
each other with uncommon affection." Sometimes, however, 
they refer to more than two individuals, according to good wri- 
ters. 

Rem. 6. All is often used as a substitute either in the singu- 
lar or plural number ; as, " All that came into the tent, and all 
that is in the tent, shall be unclean seven days." Num. 19: 14. 

Rem. 7. Such is frequently used as a substitute, and in the 
singular or plural number ; as, " Objects of importance must be 
portrayed by objects of importance; such as have grace, by 
things graceful." — Camp. Rhet. "Jubal was the father of such 
as dwelt in tents." 

Rem. 8. None is often used as a substitute and is equivalent 
to the Latin term nequis, i. e. no one. It is used by good wri- 
ters both in the singular and plural ; as, "JVbne(i. e. no person) is 
so deaf as he that will not hear;" "Ye shall lie down, and none 
(i. e. no person or persons) shall make you afraid." Lev. 26: 6. 
" None (i. e. no productions) of their productions are extant." 

Rem. 9. One and its plural, like personal pronouns, often re- 
present nouns definitely; as, "Imperfect articulations come not 
so much from bad organs, as from the abuse of good ones" 

Rem. 10. Both is sometimes used as a substitute for nouns, 
sentences, parts of sentences ; as, " Abraham took sheep and 
oxen and gave them to Abimelech, and both of them made a 
a covenant." Gen. 21: 27. Here both represents Abraham and 
Abimelech. "He will not bear the loss of his rank, because he 
can bear the loss of his estate, but he will bear both because he 
has prepared for both." Here both represents the two parts of 
sentences, the loss of his rank and the loss of his estate" 

Rem. 11, Same is often used as a substitute; as, "For brave 
and. generous ever are the same" "Nothing appears so clearly 
an object of the mind or intellect only, as the future does, since 
we can find no place for its existence any where else. Not but 
the same, if we consider, is equally true of the past" Here same 
refers to all that precedes it in the quotation. 

DEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

§ 111. Definite pronouns are such as specify what 
object is meant. 

<§> 112. The definite pronouns are this, that, these 
and those, former and latter. This, these and latter 



§§ 113, 114. Etymology— -pronouns. 65 

refer to the latter of two nouns ; that, those and former 
to the former ; as, 

" Self-love and reason to one end aspire, 

Pain their aversion, pleasure their desire ; 

But greedy that (i.e. self-love) its object would devour, 

This(\. e. reason) taste the honey and not wound the flower." — Pope. 

" Sublimity and vehemence are often confounded. The latter 
[vehemence) being considered a species of the former (sublimity)." 
— Camp. Rhet. 

Rem. 1. Former and latter are sometimes used in the posses- 
sive case ; as, " It was happy for the state that Fabius continued 
in the command ; the former's phlegm was a check upon the 
latter's vivacity." 

Rem. 2. The definite pronouns are sometimes substitutes for 
sentences ; as, 

" Forgive me my foul murder ! 
Tliat cannot be." — Shakspeare. 

Rem. 3. The definite pronouns that and those are often used 
for the definite article and a noun ; as, " His life is that (i. e. the 
life) of a student." " The powers of the mind like those (i. e. the 
powers) of the body, are strengthened by exercise." Here that 
and those represent the preceding nouns. 

DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 113. Distributive pronouns denote each one of a 
number, separately considered. 

$114. The distributive pronouns are each, every, 
either and neither ; as, " each of his brothers is in a 
favorable situation." " I have not heard either of them." 
" I have seen neither of them." 

Rem. 1. Each may relate to two or more persons or things, 
and denotes each one of them separately from the others ; as, 
" The prince had a body-guard of a thousand men, each of 
whom was six feet high." " The four beasts had each of them 
six wings." 

Rem. 2. Every denotes every one of a number separately, 
and is generally used as a distributive adjective followed by a 
noun or the indefinite pronoun one to which it belongs. In 
legal style, however, it is sometimes used as a substitute ; as, 
" all and every of them ;" every the causes and conditions. 

6* 



66 §§ 115, 116. Etymology — pronouns. 

Rem. 3. Every is sometimes separated from its noun or pro- 
noun by the definite article the and an adjective in the superla- 
tive degree ; as, " Every the least variation." — Locke. 

Rem. 4. Either may be used as a distributive pronoun, adjec- 
tive or conjunction, according to its constructive meaning. It 
is used as a pronoun ; as, " I shall be satisfied with either of 
them." " Either of these books is instructive." For its use as 
a distributive adjective and conjunction, see § 75 and § 186. 

Rem. 5. "Either is sometimes used for each; as, "Two 
thieves w T ere crucified, one on either side." 

Rem. 6. JYeither means not either, from the Saxon word 
ne-either. This word is also used as a pronoun, adjective, or 
conjunction. It is used as a pronoun ; as, "Neither of my 
friends was there." "JYeither of the offices will suit the candi- 
dates." 

<§> 115. Pronouns, like nouns, have four modifica- 
tions, person, number, gender and case. 

Remark 1. These properties of personal pronouns are gen- 
erally known by their forms, but the relative and interrogative 
pronouns are determined only by referring to their antecedents 
or subsequents. 

Rem. 2. Pronouns of the first and second person, are mascu- 
line, feminine and neuter, according to the gender of the objects 
they represent. It has been said by some very respectable 
grammarians that gender is applicable only to the third person 
singular, he, she, it. But this is obviously incorrect, I, thou, 
you, we, they, etc., may represent masculine, feminine or neuter 
nouns, and gender is just as applicable to them as to those 
which denote their gender by their forms ; as, he, she, it. The 
pronouns of the first person by personification, represent inani- 
mate objects ; as, 

" Where is thy true treasure ? Gold says, not in me ; 
And not in me, the diamond. Gold is poor." — Young. 

" The depth saith, it is not in me ; and the sea saith, it is not 
with me." Job 28: 14. 

DECLENSION ON PRONOUNS. 

<§> 116. The declension of a pronoun consists in a 
proper arrangement of its numbers and cases. The 
simple personal pronouns are thus declined : 



§ 116. Etymology — pronouns. 67 

First Person. 
Sing. Plural. 

Nom. I, Nom. we, 

Poss. My or mine, Poss. our or ours, 

Obj. Me. Obj. us. 

Second Person. 
Sing. Plural. 

Nom. thou, JVbm. ye or you, 

Poss. thy or thine, Poss. you or yours, 

OoJ. thee. Obj. you. 

Third Person. 
Sing. Plural. 

JVbm. he, she, it, Nom. they, 

Poss. his, her, hers, its, Poss. their or theirs, 
Obj. him, her, it. Obj. them. 

Remark J. Most of the simple pronouns have two forms in 
the possessive case ; as, my, mine ; thy, thine ; her, hers ; our, 
ours ; your, yoiws ; their, theirs. My, thy, her, our, your and their, 
are always followed by a noun expressed, by which they are 
governed. Mine, thine, hers, ours, yours and theirs are substitutes 
for two words, or compound pronouns ; as, " These return so 
much better out of your hands, than they went from mine ;" i. e. 
my hands. Here mine, is used for my and hands, and is con- 
strued as a pronoun in the possessive case, and governed by 
hands implied, and hands in the objective case after from. 
" Wherefore leave your forests of beasts for ours (our forest) of 
brutes, called men." " My sword and yours (your sword,) are 
kin." — Shakspeare. " Yours (your letter) of the 26th Oct., I have 
received, as I have always done yours {your letters) with no lit- 
tle satisfaction." — Wicherley to Pope. " The reason is, that his 
subject is generally things ; theirs (their subject) on the contrary, 
is persons." — Camp. Rhet. 

Rem. 2. "Mine and thine were formerly used before all words 
beginning with a vowel sound, and my and thy before others." 
"It was thou, a man of mine equal, my guide and mine acquaint- 
ance." — Psalm. But this practice is now obsolete or peculiar 
to the poets, and the Scriptures ; as, 

M Time writes no wrinkles on thine azure brow." — Byron. 

Rem. 3. In ancient times, he, his and him, were applied to 
things neuter. In our translation of the Bible, the pronoun it is 



68 § 117. Etymology — pronouns. 

employed in the nominative and the objective ; but his is re- 
tained in the possessive and neuter ; as, " Look not thou upon 
the wiue when it is red, when it giveth his color in the cup, 
when it moveth itself aright." Prov. 23: 31. " Its is not found 
in the Bible except by misprint." 

Rem. 4. Ye is sometimes in the objective case. 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

<§> 117. The compound personal pronouns are used 
only in the nominative and objective cases ; and the 
singular number is formed annexing the noun self to 
the personal pronouns my, thy, your, her, him and it ; 
and the plural by annexing selves to our, your and 
them. 

DECLENSION OF COMPOUND PRONOUNS. 

First Person. Second Person. 

Sinor. Plural. Sirnr. Plural. 



JVbwi. myself, ourselves, 

Poss. 

Obj. myself, ourselves. 



JVom. thyself, yourselves, 

Poss. 

Obj. thyself, yourselves. 



Third Person. 

Sing. Plural. 

JVom. himself, herself, itself, themselves, 

Poss. — — 

Obj. himself, herself, itself, themselves. 

Remark 1. Self renders a personal pronoun more emphatic, 
when it is annexed to it. In the Saxon it was annexed to all 
the cases ; as, he-self, his-self, himself; in the English language, 
however, it is annexed only to the nominative and objective. 
When an adjective is prefixed to self, the pronouns are written 
separate in the possessive case; as, " My noble self;" " His 
own self;" " Their own selves." 

Rem. 2. Self is sometimes annexed to the plural pronoun 
your, when a single person is addressed ; as, " My dear son, 
you yourself know well my desire that your character may be 
unblemished." 

Rem. 3. Self is sometimes prefixed to a noun, and thus forms 
a compound noun ; as, self-love, self-interest. * " 



§ 118, 119. Etymology — pronouns. 



69 



§ 118. DECLENSION OF RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE 

PRONOUNS. 





Simple Relatives. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Sinorular. 


Plural. 


JYom. who, 


who, 


JYom. which, 


which, 


Poss. whose, 


whose, 


Poss. whose, 


whose, 


Obj. whom, 


whom. 


Obj. which, 


which. 



Rem. 1. That whose may be the possessive case of which, and 
is applicable to things as well as persons, is supported by abun- 
dant authority; as, " This is one of the most clear characteris- 
tics of its being a religion whose origin is divine." — Blair. 

" And the fruit 



Of that forbidden tree ichose mortal taste 
Brought death/' — Miiton. 

;i Pure the joy without alloy, 

Whose very rapture is tranquility." 

" The lights and shades ichose well accorded strife, 
Gives all the strength and color of our life." — Pope. 

" Is there any other doctrine whose followers are punished." 
Compound Relatives. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


JYom, what, 


what, 


JYom. whoever, 


whoever, 


Poss. 




Poss. whosoever, 


whosoever. 


Obj. what, 


what. 


Objj whomever, 


whomevei. 


S 


ingular. 


Plural. 




JYom. 


whosoever, 


whosoever, 




Poss. 


whosesoever, 


whosesoever, 




Obj. 


whomsoever, 


whomsoever. 





Rem. Whatever and whatsoever, whichever and whichsoever, are 
used in both numbers, but only in the nominative and objective 
cases, their form remaining the same. 

§ 119. The indefinite pronouns, other and one, are 
thus declined : 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


JYom. other, 


others, 


JYom. one, 


ones, 


Poss. other's, 


others', 


Poss. one's, 


ones', 


Obj. other, 


others. 


Obj. one, 


ones. 



70 § 119. Etymology — pronouns. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

"He is a good man." 

What part of speech is he ? § 90. Why ? § 90. Why per- 
sonal ? § 95, What person is it ? § 49. Of what number is it ? 
§ 52. Of What gender is it ? § 56. Why ? § 56. What case ? 
§ 61. Why the nominative ? § 61. Of what verb is it the sub- 
ject? Is. Why the subject of is? § 61, Rem. 2. [The article, 
adjective and noun in this example, lite pupil may parse as he has 
been taught in the previous lessons.] 

" He is happy who lives virtuously." 

Of what part of speech is who? § 90. Why? <$ 90. What 
kind ? § 99. Why ? § 99. Of what number and person ? § 99, 
Rem. 1. Why third person, singular number ? § 99, Rem. 1. 
What case ? §61. Decline who. § 118. Why the nominative ? 
§ 61. Of what verb is it the subject? Lives. Why the sub- 
ject of lives ? § 61, Rem. 1. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

We 1 are dependent on each other's 2 assistance. Wlio 3 is 
there that 4 can subsist by himself? 5 Of whom 6 were the arti- 
cles bought? I 7 walk. Thou 8 ridest. We read. You study. 
It is made. This is the knowledge which 9 I desire. Give me 
what 10 you please. James did whatever 11 he wished to do. 
What 12 man is that ? Which 13 course will you pursue ? Who- 
ever 14 has made extensive observation, knows that the human 
heart is very deceitful. Which 15 of them will you take ? His 
efforts will be in vain whatsoever 16 means he adopts. Each 17 
of the family is well trained. Either 17 of these examples is ex- 
ceptionable. No one's 18 interest is concerned except mine. 
Love one another. 19 

Questions — First Course. 
What is a pronoun ? Do pronouns ever supply the place of 
sentences ? W T here is the noun placed which is represented 
by a pronoun, and what is it called ? Where is the noun repre- 
sented by an interrogative pronoun, contained ? How many 

1 § 90, 95 and 116. 2 § 110, Rem. 2; 119,59,(52. 3 § 107. 
4 §104. 5 §98 and 117. 6 § 1 18, 102 and 66. 7 §90 and 116. 
8 § 90 and 116. 9 § 101. 10 § 305 and 106. ll § 105, R. 7. 

12 § 106, R. 3. 13 § 103, R. 3. u § 106. R. 8. 15 § 103, R. 1. 
16 § 106, R. 11. " § 113. 18 § 110, R. 1. 19 § 110, ft. 3. 






§ 119. Etymology — pronouns. 71 

kinds of pronouns are there ? Define a personal pronoun. 
How are personal pronouns divided ? How many simple per- 
sonal pronouns are there ? Name them. How many com- 
pound pronouns? What is a relative pronoun ? How many 
kinds ? What are the simple relatives ? What does ivho rep- 
resent ? How is which applied ? How is that applicable ? What 
are the compound relative pronouns ? Define what. What are 
interrogative pronouns ? Name them. What are indefinite pro- 
nouns ? Name them. What are definite pronouns ? Repeat 
them. W T hat do distributive pronouns denote ? Name them. 
How are pronouns modified ? In what does the declension of 
a pronoun consist ? Decline /. Thou. He. It. How are com- 
pound personal pronouns used ? How are the singular and 
plural numbers formed ? Are simple and compound relatives 
ever declined ? Decline myself, thyself and himself. Decline who 
and which. Decline what. Whoever. Whosoever. How are the 
indefinite pronouns other and one declined ? 

Questions — Second Course. 

When it precedes a clause, what is it called ? When does it 
begin a sentence ? Why are not the nouns J, thou, etc. expressed ? 
Repeat Rem. 2, § 93. How are thou and you used in the singu- 
lar ? In the plural ? In what number is you used in common 
parlance? How are he and they sometimes used? How are 
the personal and interrogative pronouns sometimes used ? 
Why do the compound pronouns sometimes succeed the sim- 
ple pronouns? Should ivho ever be applied to children ? How 
is which used? Is whether ever used for which 1 ? When is 
which an interrogative adjective ? Is which ever a substitute for 
a sentence ? How many, and what parts of speech may that 
represent ? When is that a relative ? Mention the five ex- 
amples in which that is preferable to who. When should which 
be construed as a relative pronoun ? In these examples, how 
do some grammarians supply an ellipsis ? W^hen is as a rela- 
tive pronoun ? Does as ever supply the place of such ? Is what 
used in the plural ? When is what equivalent to that or those, 
and ivho or which*? When is what an indefinite adjective pro- 
noun? Is what ever an interjection? When is what used for 
that or that which ? When is what an adverb ? How are what- 
ever and whatsoever used ? How are whoever, whoso and ivhoso- 
everused? Is whichever thus analyzed ? Are the adverbs re- 
garded in the analysis of these words? To what aie ivhatever, 



72 §§ 120, 121. Etymology — verbs. 

whatsoever, whichever and whichsoever equivalent ? Are who, who- 
ever, whoso, whosoever, whatever and whatsoever ever indefinite pro- 
nouns ? When are ivhichever, ivhichspever, whatever and whatsoever 
indefinite adjectives? What is the meaning of subsequent? 
How are the indefinite pronouns modified ? How is other used ? 
What are one-another and each-other? When are one and an- 
other used together? How are each and other used? How is 
caused? Such 9 None? One? Both? Some? How are 
former and latter used ? Are definite pronouns ever substituted 
for sentences ? How are the pronouns that and those used ? 
To what does each relate ? Wliat does every denote ? How is 
either used ? When is either used for each? What does neither 
mean ? How are these properties of the personal pronouns 
known ? How is the gender of pronouns the first and second 
persons regulated? How many forms have most of the simple 
persona] pronouns ? By what are my, thy, he?*, our, your and 
their always followed ? How were mine and thine formerly used ? 
How were he, his and him anciently applied ? What effect does 
self have when annexed to a personal pronoun ? When is self 
annexed to the plural pronoun your ? Why may whose be in 
the possessive case, and applicable to things as well as persons ? 
How are whatever, ivhatsoever, whichever and whichsoever used ? 



VERBS. 

§ 120. A verb is a word which affirms, commands, 
denies or interrogates something with respect to a per- 
son or thing. 

<§> 121. That of which something is affirmed, com- 
manded, denied or interrogated is the subject ; as, 
" Man is." 

In this proposition, man is the subject, and the verb is af- 
firms simply the existence of the subject man. " The boy reads 
his book." In this proposition, the verb affirms mental and 
physical action of the subject boy exerted upon the book. "The 
horse runs." Here an action is affirmed of the horse, which is 
not exerted on any object, but is limited to the subject. " The 
child is instructed by his parents." In this proposition, the 
verb is instructed affirms something received by the subject 
child from the parents. The same may be said of the subject 
when it represents inanimate objects. On these principles, 



§§ 122 — 127. Etymology— verbs. 73 

verbs are divided into four -different classes according to their 
meaning. 

<§> 122. There are four kinds of verbs ; active-transi- 
tive, active-intransitive, passive and neuter. 

§ 123. An active-transitive verb, expresses an ac- 
tion which terminates upon some person or thing as 
its object ; as, " Charles studies his lessons" " John 
cultivates the fields" 

§ 124. An active-intransitive verb, expresses an 
action which is limited to the subject, and does not ter- 
minate upon a person or thing as its object ; as, ~" the 
horse runs," " the child walks" 

Rem. 1. The term transitive when applied to verbs Bdenotes 
that the action expressed by the verb, passes from the subject 
to an object. 

Rem. 2. The term intransitive when applied to verbs denotes 
that the action expressed by the verb does not pass from the 
subject to the object. 

<§> 125. A passive verb expresses an action that is 
received by the subject ; as, " Henry is instructed by 
his teacher." " A dutiful child is loved by his pa- 
rents." 

<§> 126. The passive verb is formed by annexing the 
perfect participles of an active transitive verb to the 
neuter verb to be ; as, u am loved;" "am persecut- 
ed ;" u to be persecuted." 

Rem. 1. It is regular when it ends in ed. 

Rem. 2. The passive verb, present tense, is sometimes form- 
ed by annexing the present passive participle to the neuter verb ; 
as, " The house is being built ;" " He is being loved." This 
mode of expression does not accord with the style of the best 
writers. 

<§> 127. A neuter verb expresses a simple state of ex- 
istence ; as, " John sits ; u Man is." 

Rem. 1. When a present participle of an active transitive or 
intransitive verb, is annexed to the neuter verb to be, the com- 
bination forms an active transitive or intransitive verb, accord- 
ing as the verb from which the participle is derived is transi- 
tive or intransitive. 

7 



74 §§ 128, 129. Etymology — verbs. 

Rem. 2. When the perfect participle of an active intransitive 
verb is annexed to the neuter verb to be, the combination forms 
an active intransitive verb, and not a neuter verb as some 
suppose ; as, " He is come ;" " He is gone ;" " The sun is risen" 
Each of these expressions denote action. 

Rem. 3. The tenses of those verbs that are formed by annex- 
ing the present participle of an active verb to the verb to be are 
precise and definite, and by some are called the definite tenses. 
"I was walking at sunset." Here sunset specifies the time of 
walking. The time is specified by terms that are closely con- 
nected in the sentence. 

Rem. 4. If active and passive verbs be compared, their mean- 
ing will be found to be essentially the same. " The passive 
voice may be .substituted at pleasure for the active, by making 
the object of the active the subject of the passive, and placing 
the subject of the active after the verb with a preposition ; as, 
" John reads the book," or, " the book is read by John." The 
active form is used to direct the attention especially to the sub- 
ject as the actor ; the passive chiefly to exhibit the object acted 
upon. 

Rem. 5. The agent of a passive verb and the object of an ac- 
tive verb, are often understood and left indefinite ; as, " Virtue 
is rewarded," i. e. by men ; " John was studying," i. e. his lesson. 

Rem. 6. Most active verbs may be used either transitively or 
intransitively. 

Rem. 7. Some verbs are used both as neuter and active tran- 
sitive ; as, " Here on this couch I rest." In this case, rest is a 
neuter verb denoting a simple state. " On the promises of the 
gospel I rest my hopes." In this case, rest is an active transi- 
tive verb. 

Rem. 8. A passive verb may be known by its admitting after 
it in all cases, an agent expressed or understood. 

§ 128. Verbs are divided with respect to their form 
into the classes, — regular, irregular and defective. 

$ 1 29. A regular verb forms the imperfect tense, of 
the indicative mode and perfect participle by annex- 
ing to the simple form of the verb ed, or d only when 
the verb ends with e ; as, love, loved. 

Rem. 1. When a verb ends with y after a consonant, y is ex- 
changed for i, and ed is annexed to form the imperfect tense 
and perfect participle ; as, magnify, magnified, magnified. But 



§.§ 130 — 132. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 75 

when the y is preceded by a vowel, it is not changed, and ed 
is annexed as before ; as, delay, delayed, delayed. 

Rem. 2. Monosyllables and verbs accented on the last sylla- 
ble, ending with a single consonant after a single vowel, double 
the final consonant and add the ed to form the imperfect tense 
and perfect participle; as, omit, omitted, omitted ; quit, quitted, 
quitted. 

Rem. 3. When an active verb is formed by the combination 
of the neuter verb to be and an active participle, it is regular or 
irregular according as the participle is derived from a regular 
or irregular verb. 

Rem. 4. Verbs are often compounded of a preposition and 
verb ; as, undergo, overlook, withstand. In these compounds, the 
preposition is prefixed to the verb. But sometimes the prepo- 
sition follows the verb, and affects it in the same manner as if 
it preceded it. Whether it precedes or follows it, if it gives a 
new meaning, the preposition forms a part of the verb ; as, 
to cast, means to throw, but cast up means to compute. Smile 
on ; build up, etc. 

MODIFICATIONS OF VERBS. 

§ 130. Besides voices, verbs have four modifica- 
tions ; modes, tenses, number* and person. 

MODES. 

<§> 131. Mode is the manner of representing an ac- 
tion or state expressed by the verb. 

<§> 132. There are four modes, the indicative, the 
subjunctive, the infinitive and the imperative. 

Remae,x. The potential mode is not adopted in this grammar, 
because all the verbs to which it is applied may, with perfect 
consistency, come under the definition of the indicative mode. 
In eacii of the propositions, Charles rides, and Charles can ride, 
an affirmation is made. The only difference between the two 
propositions consists in what is affirmed. In the proposition, 
Charles rides, a real action is affirmed ; but in the proposition, 
Charles can ride, a possible action is affirmed. The difference 
then not referring to the affirmation, but to what is affirmed or 
to the different meaning of the verbs, should not be admitted 
as a principle on which a distinct mode may be formed. If 
so, there may be as many modes as the/e are different mean- 



76 §§ 133 — 138. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 



ings of verbs. Indeed, as each verb has a meaning that differs 
more or less from the signification of every other, on such a 
principle of forming modes, there would be as many modes as 
verbs ; and instead of four modes, we should have forty-three 
thousand, which is the number of verbs in the English lan- 
guage, according to Lowth. The propositions, " He may 
study," "He might study," "He could study," affirms an abil- 
ity or power to study. The expression, " He must study," af- 
firms a necessity of studying ; and as the indicative mode af- 
firms or denies something, or asks a question, all the verbs to 
which the potential mode has been applied by most authors, 
may with the utmost propriety be arranged under -it. 

$ 133. The indicative mode affirms or denies some- 
thing or asks a question ; as, " The boy studies ;" " He 
may, can or might study." " What is the greatest 
good ?" 

Remark. The Indicative mode is known by the sense, or by 
its asking a question. 

<§> 134. The subjunctive mode denotes a doubtful or 
conditional action or state ; as, "If I go ;" " If I may, 
can, might or must go ;" Ci If he shall go." 

Remark. Conjunctions that denote doubt ; as, if, though, unless, 
except, etc., are signs of the subjunctive mode. 

<§> 135. The infinitive mode denotes an action or 
state generally, without limiting it to any person or 
thing as its subject or actor ; as, to run, to labor, to be. 

Rem. To prefixed to the verb, is the sign of the infinitive mode. 

<§> 136. The Imperative mode is used to command, 
exhort, entreat, or permit ; as, depart thou, stay thou, 
go in peace. 

Rem. 1. The imperative mode is known by its agreeing with 
thou, ye or you expressed or implied. The subject nominative 
of verbs in the imperative mode, is not generally expressed. 

Rem. 2. A verb in the imperative mode has only the present 
tense, though from its nature, it has reference to the future. 

TENSES. 

$ 138. Tenses denote the limes of the action or 
state expressed by the verb. 



§§ 139, 140. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 77 

Rem. 1. A general division of time is the present, past and 
future ; but in order to mark the times of actions or states more 
specifically, it is made to consist of six variations or tenses. 

<§> 139. The six tenses, are the present, the imper- 
fect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first and second 
futures. 

Remark. The divisions of the tenses has occasioned gramma- 
rians much trouble and perplexity. The one adopted in this 
treatise, is used in most grammars, and probably is as correct 
as it can be made without increasing very much their number. 
This, in a treatise on the elementary principles, I think is in 
expedient ; for thus the subject would become more complica- 
ted, and less adapted to the capacity of the young student. 
Moreover, innovations should be avoided unless they promise 
some real good. I shall comprehend in the remarks under 
the definition of each tense all that I should attempt to illus- 
trate by a multiplication of the tenses. 

$ 14CL The present tense denotes a present action 
or state, or a possible, conditional or necessary present 
action or state ; as, a The boy reads ;" he may, can, 
might, could, would or should read. u If he reads ;" 
if he can, might, could, would or should read ; " James 
must study" 

Rem 1. The above definition is given to it, because it suits 
not only the meaning of verbs in the indicative, but also those 
in the other modes. The definitions, usually, are suited only to 
the meaning of verbs in the indicative mode. In the proposi- 
tion, " The boy reads" a positive action is affirmed by the verb 
reads. But if we prefix to the same verb the auxiliary can, a 
widely different meaning is expressed. Not a positive, but a 
possible action is denoted. The proposition does not affirm that 
the boy actually reads, but that he is able, or, that it is possible for 
him to read. So in the proposition , / am, a real state is affirmed ; 
but in the sentence, I can, might, could, would or should be, not a 
real but a possible state is declared. The subjunctive mode does 
not affirm a positive action or state, but simply a conditional or 
supposed action or state, and therefore the common definition 
of the present tense is not suited to a verb of this mode. 
"James would have excelled Charles in knowledge, if he had been 
placed in equally favorable circumstances." In this sentence, 

7# 



78 § 140. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 

the last verb had been placed denotes a conditional action. Sub- 
stitute had been for had been placed, and there will be expressed 
a conditional state. William must obey wholesome rules. Here 
the auxiliary gives to the verb obey a meaning of necessity. For 
such considerations the terms possible, conditional and necessary 
are given in the definition of the present tense. The same 
terms for the same reasons, may be included in the definition of 
the imperfect, and the term conditional in the perfect, pluper- 
fect, first and second futures. 

Rem. 2. The present tense, sometimes denotes a specific time 
of action or state which corresponds with the time of another 
action or state ; as, I am writing, while you are studying. 

Rem. 3. The present tense often denotes general facts, truths, 
^abits and customary actions as existing without any reference 
specific time ; as, God is good ; man is frail. Trees grow, 
tirdsjly. Waves roll. He walks every morning. He visits the 
country every summer. It is also sometimes applied to persons 
who are dead, but whose works remain ; as, " Seneca moralizes 
well." " David mourns deeply for his sins." 

Rem. 4. "The present tense in the subjunctive," when it is 
followed by a member containing a verb in the future indicative, 
and also in the other modes w T hen preceded by as soon as, after, 
before, Hill or when, generally refers to a future action or state ; 
as, " If ye keep my commandments, ye shall abide in my love." 
John 15: 10. " As soon as he arrives, I shall see him." "Before 
he goes I shall give him some advice." "He will doubtless call 
upon me, after he arrives." 

Rem. 5. To render descriptions more animated, the present 
tense is used for the imperfect ; as, " They dismount, they fly 
forward to the contest." "As he lay, indulging himself in state, 
he sees, let down from the ceiling, a glittering sword, hung by a 
single hair." 

Rem. 6. The present tense is used sometimes to denote man's 
entire state of probation, when contrasted with a future state ; 
as, " For now we see through a glass darkly ; but then face to 
face." 1 Cor. 13: 12. 

" This life's a dream, an empty show, 
But the bright world to which I go, 11 etc. 

Rem. 7. The present tense of the infinitive mode denotes an 
action or state, present, past or future in reference to the time of 
the verbs upon which it depends ; as, I study to improve ; I 
studied to improve. 

Rem. 8. The present infinitive depending upon a substantive 



§§ 141, 142. Etymology — modifications of verbs. *79 

verb in the indicative mode and present tense, sometimes de- 
notes future time ; as, " Virtue is to triumph" " Ferdinand is to 
command the army." " I am going to write" 

Rem. 9. Those tenses which denote time definitely, are 
formed by annexing the present jDarticiple of an active verb to 
the verb to be, or some of its variations. 

Rem. 10. The present tense is sometimes used condition- 
ally without a conjunction; as, " Should some still doubt whether 
any theory of vocal inflections can be adopted which jhall ii_ i 
be perplexing, and on the whole injurious, especi?l]y to th, 
young,! answer that the same doubt may as well be extended 
to every department of practical knowledge." — Port r's Rhet. 
Reader, page 18. 

<§> 141. The imperfect tense denotes a past action or 
state, or a possible, conditional or necessary past act : on 
or state, without defining the time of its occurrence ; 
as, " God created the world." " Rome was." 

Rem. 1. The author is aware that the term imperfect is not 
used above according to its etymological import, yet general we 
may sanction its adoption. 

Rem. 2. The imperfect tense sometimes denotes the specific 
time of past actions or states ; as, " I was standing in the door 
when the procession passed by." 

Rem. 3. Sometimes the time of an action or state is made 
definite by adverbs of time that modify the verb ; as, " I saw my 
friend yesterday" 

<§> 142. The perfect tense denotes a past action or 
state, or a conditional past action or state, and conveys 
an allusion to the present time ; as, " I have attained 
my object." " I have seen the person who was recom-^ 
mended to me." 

Rem. 1. When a verb in the perfect tense is modified by 
an adverb or noun denoting time, this tense denotes the time 
of an action or state definitely ; as, " I have been reading to- 
day." "I have jus* finished my letter." 

Rem. 2. When a verb in the perfect tense, is not modified by 
an adverb or noun denoting time, the time of the action or state, 
is not definitely specified ; as, " I have accomplished my purpose." 

Rem. 3. This tense sometimes denotes continued action or 
state ; as, " My brother has lived twenty years." 

Rem. 4. This tense is sometimes used to denote the time of 



80 §§ 143, 144. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 

an action or state long since past, if we connect that time with 
the present ; as, " He has not visited New York since the year 
1780." 

Rem. 5. This tense is sometimes improperly used for the im- 
perfect ; as, " I have graduated in the year 1833." Here the im- 
perfect tense should be used, because the time specified has no 
reference to the present. Thus it is incorrect to say, "I have 
seen mv brother yesterday." " I have attended church last sab- 
bath."" < 

Rem. 6. j .vVhen the writings of an author which are now in 
existence are spoken of, the perfect tense should be used ; but 
when bc^h the author and his writings have ceased to be, the 
imperfect tense should be used. Thus it is correct to say, 
"MiUon has written a poem;" but it is incorrect to say, " Cicero 
has Written a poem," because the poem does not exist. 

Rem. 7. When the perfect tense is preceded by as soon as, af- 
ter, ere, before, when, till or until, it frequently denotes the rela- 
tive time of a future action or state ; as, " When I have finished 
my letter I will attend to his request." " You shall not regret 
o\y fair dominions till twice five summers have enriched our 
fields." — Shakspeare. 

" Salvation ! O, salvation ! 
The joyful sound proclaim, 
Till earth's remotest nation, 
Has learned Messiah's name." — Bishop Heber. 

<§> 143. The pluperfect tense denotes a past action or 
state, or a conditional past action or state that occurred 
at or before some specified past action or state ; as, u He 
had received the news before the messenger arrived." 

Rem. 1. Sometimes the pluperfect tense denotes definitely 
the time of an action or state which occurred at or before the 
time of another specified action or state ; as, " He had been wait- 
ing an hour when the messenger arrived." 

Rem. 2. "The pluperfect tense is often used conditionally 
without a conjunction;" as, " Had I known the circumstances, I 
should have pursued a different course." " Were it possible, I 
would assist you." 

§ 144. The first future tense denotes a future ac- 
tion or state, or a future conditional action or state ; as, 
" I shall go to town." " If I shall go." 

Rem. 1. The time of future action or state is sometimes 



§§145 — 147. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 81 

specified by an adverb or noun denoting time ; as, " / shall be 
prepared to receive you to-morrow." 

Rem. 2. The time of future action or state is sometimes ex- 
pressed indefinitely ; as, " There will be a state of retribution." 

$ 145. The second future tense denotes a future 
action or state, or a conditional future action or state 
that will occur before some other future action or state ; 
as, " I shall have finished my task when the hour of 
recitation arrives." 

Rem. 1. This tense sometimes expresses the time of an ac- 
tion or State indefinitely; as, " They will have accomplished their 
purpose at the time they proposed." 

Rem. 2. This tense sometimes expresses the time of a future 
action or state definitely; as, "The scholars willhave been study- 
ing an hour when the tutor comes to examine them." 

NUMBERS. 

<§> 146. Numbers are the forms of the verb which 
denote the unity or plurality of its subject. Verbs, like 
nouns, have two numbers, the singular and the plural. 
Verbs have the same numbers as their subject-nomina- 
tives. 

PERSONS. 

$147. u Persons are forms of the verb appropriated 
to the different persons of the subject, and accordingly 
are called the first, second, and third persons." Verbs 
have the same person as their subject-nominatives. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st per. I love, 1st per. We love, 

2d per. Thou lovest, 2d per. Ye or you love, 

3d per. He loves. 3d per. They love. 

Rem, 1. A verb in the imperative mode is used only in the 
second person, and has no change of its termination on account 
of number or person. It is the simplest form of the verb, 
whether active, passive or neuter ; as, "Love (thou)." u Love(ye)." 
" Be (thou) loved." " Be (ye or you) loved." " Be (thou) taught." 
" Be (ye or you) taught." 



82 § 147. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 

Rem. 2. The signification of the infinitive mode is not limited 
to any subject, and therefore requires no change of its termina- 
tion to express number or person ; as, " I wish to go ;" "I wished 
to have gone" 

Rem. 3. In familiar style, the terminations of the verbs are not 
varied to agree with their respective nominatives ; except the 
third person singular of the indicative mode present tense, and 
the variations of the verb to be. 

Rem. 4. In familiar style, 5 or es is annexed to the third per- 
son singular in the indicative mode present tense, according to 
the rules given for the formation of the plural number of nouns. 

Rem. 5. In familiar style, the verb to be in the indicative mode 
and present tense has, in the first person and singular number, 
am; in the second, are; in the third, is ; and in the plural, are 
in the first, second and third persons. In the imperfect tense 
of the indicative mode, the same verb has was in the first and 
third persons singular ; were in the second, and in all the per- 
sons in the plural. 

Rem. 6. In the plural, verbs of ail the numbers terminate 
alike, and have the same form as the first person singular. As 
the subject-nominative is generally expressed, perspicuity does 
not require different terminations of the verb to distinguish the 
different numbers and persons of their subjects. 

Rem. 7. In common parlance, custom authorizes the use of 
the plural pronoun you to denote a singular noun. The same 
authority requires that a plural verb should be joined with you, 
when it denotes a singular noun. If custom is sufficient to 
sanction the former, of course it can the latter. It would be as 
proper to say you has, and you is, as you ivas. You has the plu- 
ral form, and therefore requires a verb of the same form. Has, 
is and ivas have the singular form, and therefore require their 
subjects to have the same form. A violation of this rule is also 
opposed to classical usage. 

Rem. 8. " In solemn style, thou is used in the singular and ye 
in the plural." The solemn style is used in the Bible, in sacred 
descriptions and in prayer. To a great extent, also, it is used 
in poetry ; and the society of Friends adopt it as their common 
language. 

Rem. 9. In solemn style, the second person singular of the 
present indicative and the imperfect, tense of the irregular verbs, 
usually terminate with est, which forms an additional syllable. 
The second person singular of the imperfect tense, indicative 



§§ 147. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 83 

mode, regular verbs, terminates with st ; as, J loved, thou lovedst, 
not lovedest 

Rem. 10. When the verb ends with a sound that will unite 
with that of st, the second person singular may be contracted. 
The poets, though not uniform in their modes of contraction, 
generally contract the second person singular of verbs. In 
some cases before st, an apostrophe is inserted, and the conso- 
nant preceded by a single vowel is doubled ; as, bidd'st, hold'st, 
ledd'st, maxfst, migMst, said'st, etc. In other cases, tiie contrac- 
tions are made frequently by annexing st only; as, mightst, 
couldst, wouldst, bidst, saidst, etc. Sometimes the vowel in the 
termination of words is retained, and the preceding one is sup- 
pressed ; as, hasVnest, flaWrest, happ'nest, slumWrest, etc. Often, 
however, the vowel of the termination is suppressed and the 
preceding one is retained; as, happertst, quickertst, etc. The 
object in all these cases seems to be to avoid an additional syl- 
lable and promote the smoothness and euphony of the language. 
The auxiliaries may, can, might, could, would and should, are now 
generally used in the contracted form. Dost and hast, and also 
the irregular imperfects didst, hadst and wast, are permanently 
contracted. In the auxiliaries shall and will, I final is changed 
to t in the second person singular. 

Rem. 11. In the solemn style, the third person singular of 
the indicative mode present tense, is formed by annexing th 
when the verb ends with e, and eth when it does not. Thus 
an additional syllable is formed. From verbs thus formed, doth, 
hath and saith are contractions. 

Rem. 12. In the solemn style, viert is the second person sin- 
gular of the subjunctive imperfect, if the subjunctive form is 
used. But if the indicative form is used, toast is the second 
person singular of the imperfect, and art the second person sin- 
gular of the present indicative. 

Rem. 13. In the familiar and solemn style, the regular term- 
inations that are annexed to verbs, are, d or ed, st or est, s or es, 
th or eth and ing. Of these, th, eth and ing always make an 
additional syllable when they are annexed to verbs; except id 
doth, hath and saith In familiar style, when verbs terminate 
with a letter that will unite with the others, there is no addi- 
tional syllable ; but if not, an additional syllable is made. " In 
solemn style ed and est are uttered, by most speakers, distinctly 
in all cases ; except sometimes when a vowel precedes." 



84 §§ 148 — 152. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

<§> 148. The conjugation of a verb consists in nam- 
ing the present and imperfect tenses, and the present 
and perfect participles ; as, present, love; imperfect, lov- 
ed; present participle, loving ; perfect participle, loved. 

Rem. 1. " The most simple form of the verb, is that of the 
infinitive present, or the present indicative ; as, to love, I love" 

Rem, 2. This form is called the general root, because all the 
other parts of the verb are derived from it. 

Rem. 3. There are also four specific roots from which, by the 
aid of auxiliaries, all the other parts of the verb are readily 
formed. These specific roots, are the present and imperfect ten- 
ses, and the present and perfect participles. 

DECLENSION OF VERBS. 

$ 149. The declension of a verb consists in the form- 
ation and arrangement of its several parts, according to 
their voices, modes, tenses, numbers and persons. 

<§> 150. The synopsis of a verb consists in giving 
the form of the first person singular of all the tenses of 
the indicative and subjunctive modes, the second per- 
son singular and plural of the imperative, the present 
and perfect infinitives, and the participles. 

AUXILIARIES. 

$ 151. Auxiliaries are short verbs which are pre- 
fixed to a radical part of another verb to assist in form- 
ing the compound tenses of the different modes. 

§ 152. The auxiliaries are, do, be, have, shall, 
will, may, can, must, might, could, would and should, 
with their variations. 

Rem. I. Do, be, have and will, are sometimes principal verbs. 

Rem. 2. Do is used with the present and imperfect tenses of 
active, transitive and intransitive verbs as an auxiliary to ren- 
der a declaration or question more emphatic, or to make a con- 
trast, or supply the place of the principal verb and its object ; 
as, " It would have been impossible for Cicero to inflame the 
minds of the people to so high a pitch against oppression con- 



§ 152. Etymology— modifications of verbs. 85 

sidered in the abstract, as he actually did inflame them against 
Verres." — Camp, Rhet. Here did denotes emphasis. " It was 
hardly possible that we should not distinguish you, as he has 
done? — Camp, Rhet, Here done supplies the place of distin- 
guished you. 

He loves no plays 



As thou dost. Jlntkony ;- 



Here dost, supplies the place of lovest plays. Do is auxiliary on- 
ly to verbs in the present and imperfect tenses. 

Rem. 3. Shall in its primitive sense denotes to be obliged, or 
bound in duty ; but in many of its uses, its sense is much va- 
ried. In the first person, it merely foretells; as, "I shall go to 
New York to-morrow." 

In this phrase, the word seems to have no reference to obli- 
gation ; nor is it considered by a second or third person as im- 
posing obligation on the person uttering it. But when shall 
is used in the second and third persons, it resumes its primi- 
tive sense, or one nearly allied to it, implying obligation or com- 
mand; as, when a superior commands with authority, you shall 
go ; or implying a right in the second and third person to ex- 
pect, and hence denoting a promise in the speaker ; as, "You 
shall receive your wages." This is radically saying, "You 
ought to receive your wages ;" but this right in the second per- 
son to receive, implies an obligation in the person speaking to 
pay. Hence shall in the first person foretells ; in the second, 
promises, commands, or expresses determination. When shall, in 
the second and third persons, is uttered with emphasis, it ex- 
presses determination in the speaker, and implies an authority to 
enforce the act ; " You shall go." 

Hence proceeds the impropriety of using shall when the Su- 
preme Being is supposed to be the person addressed or spoken 
of. " The Lord shall fight for us — the Lord shall destroy them — 
the Lord shall comfort Zion." " Thou shall not suffer thy Holy 
One to see corruption." Acts 13 : 35. See Ps. 16 : 10. Acts 
2: 27. — Webster 's Grammar, 

Rem. 4. Will, when an auxiliary, denotes in the first person 
apromise or determination ; as, " I will reform," i. e. I promise to 
reform. In the second and third persons will simply foretells or 
expresses an opinion of what will occur hereafter. 

Rem. 5. May and might denote liberty or possibility ; as, " He 
may go if he will ;" " He may have written or not ;" " He might go? 

Rem. 6. Can and could denote possibility or power, 
8 



86 § 152. Etymology — modifications of verbs*, 

Rem. 7. Must denotes necessity and is not varied for person, 
number or tense. 

Rem. 8. Would denotes will or resolution ; as, " I would go, if I 
could." Would has sometimes the sense of wish or pray; as, 
" Would to God ?" " Would to God we had died in Egypt." 
It denotes a wish to do or to have ; as, " What wouldsf thou ?"'" 

Rem. 9. Should generally denotes obligation ; as, " Every man 
should do his duty." Sometimes, however, it denotes a simple 
possible action or state ;' as, " I should go to town, if my health 
were good." Here should does not denote obligation. 

Rem. 10. Might, could, would, are construed in all grammars 
with which the author is acquainted, as the imperfect tense. 
But is such a construction accordant with the definition given 
to the imperfect tense ? Does the proposition, J might, could, 
would or should do, denote a past action or state ? So far as the 
author has examined the use of these auxiliaries, he has found 
no authority, either in common parlance, or in standard works, 
to authorize such an application of the imperfect tense. If they 
denote any other time than the present, it must be the future. In 
saying " I might or could go," I declare my present power or abil- 
ity to go. " I would go" denotes a present disposition or desire to 
go. " He should go," denotes an obligation or duty to go. These 
auxiliaries have no more reference to past time, than may or 
can. Neither of them, when prefixed to the principal verb of 
the present tense, denotes a real action or state, but simply a 
present possible or obligatory action or state. The verb in this 
case only affirms the possibility of action or state, and not the 
action or state itself. The action or state, may or may not oc- 
cur in future ; but the possibility of them which is affirmed in 
the examples given, is denoted by the present tense. 

Rem. 11. Could may, however, sometimes be used in the 
past tense, after a verb in the imperfect, though it is generally 
used in the present; as, "I avenged the wrong then, because 
I could do it." 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

In the following examples, questions will be put with refer- 
ence only to the verbs. The other parts of speech should be 
parsed according to the directions already given. 

" Caesar crossed the Rubicon." 

What part of speech is crossed? § 120. Why ? §120. Con- 
jugate crossed, § 148. Is it regular or irregular ? § 129. Why ? 



Etymology — modifications of verbs. 87 

§ 129. What kind ? § 12a Why ? § 123. What mode ? § 133. 
Why? § 133. What tense? § 140. Why? § 140. What num- 
ber ? § 146. Why ? § 146. What person ? § 147. Why ? § 147. 
What is its subject-nominative ? Ccesar. 

" The boy uwjfo ?" 

What part of speech is Walks ? § 120. Why ? § 120. Con- 
jugate it. § 148. Is it regular or irregular ? § 129. Why? § 129. 
What kind? § 124. Why? § 124. What mode? § 1&3. Why? 
§ 133. What tense ? § 140. Why ? § 140. What number? § 14d 
Why ? § 146. What person ? § 147. Why ? § 147. What is its 
subject-nominative ? -Bo?/. 

" James was instructed." 

What part of speech is was instructed ? § 120. Why ? ■_§ 120. 
What kind? §126. Why? §126. Conjugate it. §148. Is it 
regular or irregular ? § 126. R. 1. How is it formed ? § 126. 
What mode ? § 133. What tense ? § 140. What number ? 
§ 146. What person ? § 147. What is its subject-nominative ? 
James. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

Water runs. 1 I can study. 2 Perseverance overcomes all 
things. Charles is disinterested. 3 You respect him. We com- 
pleted our work. Your hope has failed. 4 He had resigned 5 
himself. 6 Their fears will prevail. 7 You shall submit. 8 He 
will have determined. 9 He shall have agreed. Let 10 me de- 
part. 11 Prepare 12 your lessons. He may fail. They might 
consider 13 . They should have obeyed. I will join you if you 
please 14 . He is not able to resist 15 temptation. 

Questions — First Course. 

What is a verb ? What is the subject of a proposition ? How 
many kinds of verbs are there ? What is an active-transitive 
verb ? An active-intransitive verb ? A passive verb ? How is 
the passive verb formed ? What is a neuter verb ? How are 
verbs divided ? What is a regular verb ? How are verbs modi- 
fied ? What is mode ? How many modes are there ? Define 
the indicative mode. The subjunctive mode. The infinitive 



1 § 120 and 124. 


6 § 98 and 117. 


11 § 120 and 135. 


2 § 132, R. l,and 133. 


7 § 144. 


, 12 § 136, R.J. 


3 § 126. 


8 § 144. 


13 § 132, R. 1 &J33. 


4 § 142. 


9 § 145. 


" § 134. 


5 § 143. 


10 § 130. 


15 § 135. 



88 Etymology — modifications of verbs. 

mode. The imperative mode. What are tenses ? How many 
tenses are there ? What does the present tense denote ? The 
imperfect ? The perfect ? The pluperfect ? The first future ? 
The second future ? What is number ? Define person. In 
what does the conjugation of a verb consist ? What is the de- 
clension of a verb ? Define the synopsis of a verb ? What are 
auxiliaries ? Repeat each of the auxiliaries. 

Questions — Second Course. 

What is the meaning of the term transitive f What does in- 
transitive mean ? When a present participle is annexed to the 
neuter verb, to be, what does the combination form ? When 
the perfect participle of an active-intransitive verb is annexed 
to the neuter verb to be ? What does the combination form ? 
What difference in meaning is there between an active and 
a passive verb ? How is the agent of a passive, and the object 
of an active verb often left ? How may most active verbs be 
used ? Are any verbs used as neuter and active transitive also ? 
Give examples. When a verb ends with y, preceded by a 
consonant, what change is made to form the imperfect tense ? 
How do monosyllables and verbs accented on the last syllable, 
ending with a single consonant, form the imperfect ? If an 
active verb is formed by the combination of the verb to be and 
an active participle, when is it regular or irregular ? Are verbs 
ever compounded with prepositions ? Give examples. State 
reasons why the potential mode is not adopted in this gram- 
mar. How is the indicative mode known ? What conjunc- 
tions are signs of the subjunctive mode ? When to is prefixed 
to a verb, what is it the sign of? How is the imperative mode 
known? How many tenses has the imperative mode? How many 
general divisions of time are there ? Has the division of tenses 
occasioned grammarians any difficulty ? What reasons are there 
for adopting the definition given to the present tense ? Does 
the present tense ever denote a specific time of action? What 
does the present tense often denote ? When does the pre- 
sent tense refer to a future action or state ? Why is the 
present tense sometimes used for the perfect ? Does the pres- 
ent tense ever denote an entire state of probation ? What does 
the present tense of the infinitive mode denote ? What does 
the present infinitive, depending upon a substantive verb in 
the indicative mode present tense, denote ? How are those 
tenses formed which denote time definitely ? Is the present 



Etymology — -modifications of verbs 89 

tense ever used conditionally without a conjunction ? In this 
grammar is the imperfect tense used according to its etymolo- 
gical import ? Does the imperfect tense ever denote the spe- 
cific time of past action ? Give examples. How is the time 
of an action sometimes made definite ? When does the per- 
fect tense denote the time of an action definitely ? When is it 
indefinite ? Does the perfect tense ever denote continued ac- 
tion or state? Give examples. Does it ever denote time long 
since past ? Give examples. Why is this tense sometimes im- 
properly used for the imperfect ? What should be used in 
speaking of the writings of an author now in existence ? When 
the writings and the author have ceased to be, what tense 
should be used ? When does the perfect tense denote the re- 
lative time of a future action ? Define the definite pluperfect 
tense. The indefinite pluperfect tense. Conditional pluper- 
fect How is the time of future action or state sometimes spe- 
cified? Give an example of indefinite future action. Give an 
example of the second future tense indefinite. Example of the 
second future definite. How many persons has the verb in the 
imperative mode ? Is the signification of the infinitive mode 
limited ? How is the familiar style of the terminations of verbs 
limited ? Under what circumstances is s or es annexed to the 
third person singular, indicative mode present tense ? In fa- 
miliar style, how is the verb to be varied in the present and im- 
perfect tenses of the indicative mode ? How do verbs termi- 
nate in the plural ? Is the use of the plural you to denote a 
singular noun ever authorized ? How are thou and ye used ? 
In solemn style, how does the second person singular of the 
present indicative, and the imperfect tense of the irregular 
verbs, usually terminate ? When may the sound of the verb be 
contracted ? In grave style, how is the third person singular of 
the indicative mode present tense formed ? In solemn style, 
what is wert? What, are the regular terminations of verbs? 
What is the most simple form of the verb? What is this form 
called ? How many specific roots are there ? Are do, be, have, 
will, need and dare, ever principal verbs ? How is do used ? 
What does shall denote ? Will % May 2 Can and could % Must ? 
Would? Should? How are might, co uld and would construed? 
How is could sometimes used ? 

8* 



90 §§ 153 — 155. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 



PARTICIPLES. 

§ 153. A participle is a word which is derived from 
a verb and partakes of its nature. 

Rem. 1. The common definition given to this part of speech, 
differs from the above in this, that it ascribes to the participle 
the nature of an adjective as well as that of a verb. But a 
pure participle partakes no more of the nature of an adjective 
than the verb from which it is derived. " I saw a man drink- 
ing" Here the participle drinking simply denotes the act of 
the man and not his character or habits. But place the parti- 
ciple before the noun man, and this new position gives it a 
descriptive meaning. In this position, it describes the habits 
and character of the man. The common definition of a parti- 
ciple is adapted to the participial adjective, and the name of 
the latter shows that it partakes of the nature of a verb, and 
also of an adjective. 

Rem. 2. Participles retain essentially the meaning of their 
verbs, and like them they are either active transitive, or active in- 
trasitive, passive or neuter, 

§ 154. There are three kinds of participles; the 
present, the perfect, and the compound perfect ; as, 
loving, loved, having loved % 

§ 1 55. The present participle denotes a progressive 
present action or state. When derived from an active 
or neuter verb, it is formed by annexing ing to the 
first form of the verb, when it does not end with e ; 
as, hold, holding ; yield, yielding. But when it has 
final e, the present participle is generally formed by 
dropping e and annexing ing ; as, love, loving ; make, 
making. 

Ex. 1. Verbs ending with the dipthong ee, do not drop e 
as, see, seeing ; flee, fleeing. 

Ex. 2. The neuter verb be retains its final e in forming the 
present participle ; as, be, being. 

Ex. 3. Dye, to color, retains its final e to distinguish its pres- 
ent participle diving from dying, the participle of die. In singe- 
ing from singe, e is retained to distinguish it from singing, the 
participle of sing. 



§ 156. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 91 

Rem. 1. The present participle of a passive verb, is compos- 
ed of the present participle of the verb be and the perfect par- 
ticiple' of an active-transitive verb ; as, being loved ; being fin- 
ished* 

Rem. 2. The present participle by its position in the sen- 
tence, sometimes acquires partially the nature of an adjective 
and by consequence is called a participial adjective. A bowing 
wall ; a yielding child. 

Rem. 3. By construction the present participle partially ac- 
quires the nature of a noun, and by consequence is called a 
participial noun ; as, " In keeping the commandments, there is 
great reward." When it acquires the meaning of a noun, it 
admits the definite article the ; as, " The burning of London in 
1666." When construed as a participial noun, it admits the 
plural form; as, "The overflowings of the Nile." "He seeth 
all his doings." This use of the participle however is not con- 
sidered elegant, nor is it usual. 

Rem. 4. The participle sometimes becomes a noun by an- 
nexing ness to it ; as, willing, willingness. 

Rem. 5. The present participle sometimes becomes an ad- 
verb by annexing ly to it; as, smiling, smilingly; amusing, 
amusingly ; longing, longingly. 

Rem. 6. The present participle sometimes denotes a past 
action or state, when it follows a principal verb in the past 
tense ; as, " I saw a man walking." " I saw the trees waving." 
But when it follows an auxiliary verb it is usually joined with 
it to form a verb ; as, " He was walking." " John was studying." 

§ 156. The perfect participle denotes an action or 
state entirely past, and when derived from regular 
verbs, it is formed by annexing to the verb ed, or d 
only when the verb ends with e. 

Rem. 1. When this participle is derived from an active-tran- 
sitive verb, it is annexed to the auxiliary be and its variations 
to form the passive verb. But when it is derived from an ac- 
tive intransitive or neuter verb it cannot be thus annexed and 
used in the .passive sense. 

Rem. 2. This participle when placed before a noun in con- 
struction' often acquires partially the nature of an adjective, and 
hence is called a participial adjective ; as, " a mined man ;" " a 
concentrated plot." 

Rem. 3. Sometimes the perfect participle acquires the mean- 



92 § 157 — 159. Etymology — modifications of Verbs. 

ing of an adverb, by annexing ly ; as, deservedly ; promotedly ; 
conceitedly. 

<§> 157. The compound perfect participle denotes a 
past action or state that occurred before another past 
action or state ; as, " Having finished my business, 
I returned home." 

Remark. When this participle is active or neuter, it is formed 
by prefixing the present participle having to the perfect parti- 
ciple of active or neuter verbs ; as, having loved ; having been. 
When it is passive, it is formed by prefixing having been, to the 
perfect participle of an active-transitive verb ; as, having been 
loved. 

<§> 158. All modes have not the same number of 
tenses. 

The indicative has six tenses. 
The subjunctive has six tenses. 
The imperative has one tense. 
The infinitive has two tenses. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

<§> 159. In this treatise, verbs are declined in two 
ways, affirmatively and interrogatively. 

Declension of Auxiliaries, affirmatively. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

MAY. 
Singular. Plural. 

1st per. I may, [may, We may, 

2d per. Thou mayest, or you Ye or you may, 
3d per. He, she, or it may. They may. 

MIGHT. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, We might, 

2. Thou mightst or you might, Ye or you might, 

3. He, she, or it might. They might. 



§ 159. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 93 



CAX. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I can, We can, 

2. Thou canst or you can, Ye or you can. 

3. He, she, or it can. They can. 

COULD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I could, * We could, 

2. Thou couldst or you could. Ye or you could, 

3. He, she, or it could. They could. 

SHOULD. 

Present Tense, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I should, We should, 

2. Thou shouldst or you should, Ye or you should, 

3. He, she, or it should. They should. 

WOULD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I would, We would, 

2. Thou wouldst or you would, Ye or you would, 

3. He, she, or it would. They would. 

SHALL. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall, We shall, 

2. Thou shalt or you shall. Ye or you shall, 

3. He, she, or it shall. They shall. 

WILL. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I will, We will, 

2. Thou wilt or you will, Ye or you will, 

3. He, she, or it will. They will. 



94 § 160. Etymology — modifications of verbs. . 

Rem. 1. Will, used as a principal verb, is declined regularly ; 
as, I will, thou wiliest, he will, etc. 

Rem. 2. Must lias no change of termination. 

§ 160. Conjugation of the regular active verb love, affirma- 
tively. 

Present. Imperfect. Pres. Participle. Perf. Participle. 

Love. Loved. Loving. Loved. 

Declension of the verb love, affirmatively. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I love, We love, 

2. Thou lovest or you love, Ye or you love, 

3. He, she, or it loves. They love. 

With the auxiliary Do. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I do love, We do love, 

% Thou dost love, or you do love, Ye or you do love, 

3. He, she, or it does love. They do love. 

Remark. The auxiliaries may, can, must, might, could, would or 
should, are prefixed to the principal verb to denote a possible or 
necessary action or state. 

Present Tense, 
With may, can or must. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can or must love, We may, can or must love, 

2. Thou mayest, canst or must Ye or you may, can or must 

love, or you may, can or love, 
must love. 

3. He, she, or it may, can or Thej may, can or must love. 

must love. 

Present Tense, 

With might, could, would and should. 

Singular. 
1. I might, could, would or should love, 



§ 160. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 95 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst or shouldst love, or you 

might, could, would or should love, 

3. He, she, or it might, could, would or should love. 

Plural. 

1. We might, could, would or should love, 

2. Ye or you might, coujd, would or should love, 

3. They might, could, would or should love. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Rem. 1. This tense is formed by annexing ed to the present 
when the verb does not end with e, or d only when it has e final ; 
thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I loved, We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, or you loved, Ye or you loved,. 

3. He, she, or it loved. They loved. 

With the auxiliary did. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I did love, [love, We did love, 

2. Thou didst love, or you did Ye or you did love, 

3. He, she, or it did love. They did love. 

With may, can, must and have. 
Singular. 

1. I may, can or must have loved, 

2. Though mayest, canst or must have loved, or you may, can 

or must have loved. 
2. He, she, or it may, can or must have loved. 

Plural. 

1. We may, can or must have loved, 

2. Ye or you may, can or must have loved, 

3. They may, can or must have loved. 

With might, could, would^ should and have. 
Singular. 

1. I might, could, would or should have loved, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst or shouldst have loved, or 

you might, could, would or should have loved. 

3. He, she or it might, could, would or should have loved. 

Plural. 

1. We might, could, would or should have loved, 

2. Ye or you might, could, would or should have loved, 

3. They might, could, would or should have loved. 



96 § 160. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 



Perfect Tense. 

Rem. 2. The perfect tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary 
have to the perfect participle ; thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved, *We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, or you have Ye or you have loved, 

loved, 

3. He, she, or it has loved. They have loved 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Rem. 3. This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary Imd 
to the perfect participle ; thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved, We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, or you had Ye or you had loved, 

loved. 

3. He, she, or it had loved. They had loved. 

First Future Tense. 

Rem. 4. This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary shall 
or will to the radical verb ; thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will love, We shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love, or you Ye or you shall or will love, 

shall or will love, 

3. He, she, or it shall or will love. They shall or will love. 

Second Future Tense, 

Rem. 5. This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary shall 
have or will have to the perfect participle ; thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved, We shall have loved, 

2. Thou wilt have loved, or you Ye or you will have loved, 

will have loved, 

3. He, she, or it will have loved. They will have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Rem. 6. The conditional conjunctions, if though, unless, ex- 
cept, etc., are prefixed to verbs in this mode. 



§ 160. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 97 

Subjunctive Form. 

Present Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love, If we love, 

2. If thou or you love, If ye or you love, 

3. If he, she, or it loves. If they love. 

With may, can and must 
Singular. 

1. If I may, can or must love, 

2. If thou or you may, can or must love, 

3. If he, she, or it may, can or must love. 

Plural. 

1. If we may, can or must love, 

2. If ye or you may, can or must love, 

3. If they may, can or must love. 

With might, could, would and should. 
Singular. 

1. If I might, could, would or should love, 

2. If thou or you might, could, would or should love, 

3. If he, she, or it might, could, would or should love. 

Plural. 

1. If we might, could, would or should love, 

2. If ye or you might, could, would or should love, 

3. If they might, could, would or should love. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I loved, If we loved, 

2. If thou or you loved, If ye or you loved, 

3. If he, she, or it loved. If they loved. 

With may, can, must and have. 
Singular. 

1. If I may, can or must have loved, 

2. If thou or you may, can or must have loved, 

3. If he, she, or it may, can or must have loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we may, can or must have loved, 

2. If ye or you may, can or must have loved, 

3. If they may, can or must have loved. 

9 



98 § 160. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 

With might, could, would, should and have. 
Singular. 

1. If I might, could, would or should have loved, 

2. If thou or you might, could, would or should have loved, 

3. If he, she, or it might, could, would or should have loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we might, could, would or should have loved, 

2. If ye or you might, could, would or should have loved, 

3. If they might, could, would or should have loved. 

Rem. 7. Perfect, pluperfect and. first future tenses of the indica- 
tive form of this mode, are declined like the same tenses in the 
indicative mode, except a conditional conjunction is prefixed to 
the verb. The same remark is applicable to the declension of 
the neuter and passive verbs in this mode. 

Rem. 8. The second future tense of the indicative mode 7 has 
wilt in the second, and will in the third person singular, and will 
in the second and third persons plural ; but the same tense of 
the subjunctive, has neither of them. The second future of ther 
subjunctive mode, is declined thus : — 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have loved, If we shall have loved, 

2. If thou shalt have loved, or If ye or you shall have loved* 

you shall have loved, 

3. If he, she, or it shall have If they shall have loved. 

loved. 

Rem. 9. the indicative form of the subjunctive mode has the 
first five tenses like the same in the indicative, except a condi- 
tional conjunction is prefixed to the verb. The second future 
tense has no indicative form. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Sing. 2. Love or love (thou) or do thou love. 
Sing. 2. Love (ye or you) or do ye or you love. * 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Pres. To love. Perf. To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Loving. Perf. Loved. Comp. Perf. Having loved* 



§ 16L Etymology — modifications of verbs. 99 

§ 161. Conjugation of the irregular verb see. 

Pres. Imp. Pres. Part. Perf. Part. 

See, Saw. Seeing, Seen. 

Declension of the irregular active verb see, affirmatively. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I see, We see, 

2. Thou seest, or you see, Ye or you see, 

3. He, she, or it sees. They see. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I saw, We saw, 

2. Thou sawest, or you saw, Ye or you saw, 

3. He, she, or it saw. They saw. 

Remark. Irregular verbs may be declined with the same 
auxiliaries, as the regular verb love. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have seen, We have seen, 

2. Thou hast seen, or you have Ye or you have seen, 

seen, 

3. He, she, or it has seen. They have seen. 



Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had seen, We had seen, 

2. Thou hadst seen, or you had Ye or you had seen, 

seen, 

3. He, she, or it had seen. They had seen. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will see, We shall or will see, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt see, or you Ye or you shall or will see, 

shall or will see, 

3. He, she, or it shall or will see. They shall or will see. 



100 § 161. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 



Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have seen, We shall have seen, 

2. Thou wilt have seen, or you Ye or you will have seen, 

will have seen, 

3. He, she, or it will have seen. They will have seen. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Subjunctive Form. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I see, If we see, 



2. If thou or you see, If ye or you see, 

3. If he, she, or it see. If they see. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I saw, If we saw, 

2. If thou or you saw, If ye or you saw, 

3. If he, she, or it saw. If they saw. 

Remark. The perfect and pluperfect tenses of this mode, are 
like those of the indicative, with the exception of the condi- 
tional conjunctions. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have seen, If we shall have seen, 

2. If thou or you shall have seen, If ye or you shall have seen, 

3. If he, she, or it shall have seen. If they shall have seen. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Sing. 2. See or see (thou), or do thou see. 
Plur. 2. See ye or you, or do ye or you see. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Pres. To see. Perf. To have seen. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Seeing. Perf. Seen. Compound Perf . Having seen. 



§ 162. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 101 

§ 162, Conjugation of the irregular neuter verb be. 

Pres. Imp. Pres. Part. Perf. Past. 

Am or be. Was. Being, Been. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am, We are, 

2. Thou art, or you are, Ye or you are, 

3. He, she, or it is. They are. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was, We were, 

2. Thou wast, or you were, Ye or you were, 

3. He, she, or it was. They were. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been, We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, or you have Ye or you have been, 

been, 

3. He, -she, or it has been. They have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been, We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, or you had Ye or you had been, 

been, 

3. He, she, or it had been, They had been. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be, We shall or will be, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, or you Ye or you shall or will be, 

shall or will be, 

3. He, she, or it shall or will be. They shall or will be. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been, We shall have been, 

2. Thou wilt have been, or you Ye or you will have been, 

will have been, 

3. He, she, or it will have been. They will have been, 

9* 



102 § 163. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Subjunctive Form. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be, If we be, 

2. If thou be, or you be, If ye or you be, 

3. If he, she, or it be. If they be. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were, If we were, 

2. If thou wert, or you were, If ye or you were, 

3. If he, she, or it were. If they were. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have been, If we shall have been, 

2. If thou shalt have been, or If ye or you shall have been, 

you shall have been. , 

3. If he, she,or it shall have been. If they shall have been. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Sing. 2. Be or be (thou), or do thou be. 
Plur. 2. Be ye or you, or do ye or you be. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

To be. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Being. Per/. Been. Comp. Per/. Having been. 

§ 163. Conjugation of the compound form of the regular 
active verb ee loving. 

Present. Irnperf. Pres. Part. Perf. Part. 

Am or be loving. Was loving. Loving. Loved. 

Remark. Both transitive and intransitive verbs maybe conju- 
gated by annexing the present participle to the auxiliary verb, 
he ; as, " I am studying my lesson." " The field is ploughing" 



§ 163. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 103 

Declension of the regular transitive verb be loving, affirma- 
tively or negatively. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loving, We are loving, 

2. Thou art loving, or you are Ye or you are loving, 

loving, 

3. He, she, or it is loving. They are loving. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loving, We were loving, 

2. Thou wast loving, or you Ye or you were loving, 

were loving, 

3. He, she, or it was loving. They were loving. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loving, We have been loving, 

2. Thou hast been loving, or you Ye or you have been loving, 

have been loving, 

3. He, she, or it has been loving. They have been loving. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loving, We had been loving, 

2. Thou hadst been loving, or Ye or you had been loving, 

you had been loving, 

3. He, she, or it had been loving. They had been loving. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be loving, We shall or will be loving, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be loving, Ye or you shall or will be 
or you shall or will be loving, loving, 

3. He, she, or it shall or will be They shall or will be loving. 

loving. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been loving, We shall have been loving, 



104 § 163. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 

2. Thou wilt have been loving, Ye or you will have been lov- 

or you will have been loving, ing, 

3. He, she, or it will have been They will have been loving. 

loving. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE, 

Subjunctive Form. 

Present Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. If I be loving, If we be loving, 

2. If thou be loving, or you be If ye or you be loving. 

loving, 

3. If he, she, or it be loving. If they be loving. 

Imperfect Tense* 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were loving, If we were loving, 

2. If thou wert loving, or you If ye or you were loving, 

were loving, 

3. If he, she, or it were loving. If they were loving. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

L If I shall have been loving. If we shall have been loving, 

2. Ifthoushalt have been loving, If ye or you shall have been 
or you shall have been loving, loving, 

3. If he, she, or it shall have If they shall have been loving, 
been loving. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Sing* 2. Be (thou) loving, or do thou be loving. 

Plur. 2. Be ye or you loving, or do ye or you be loving, 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense* 
Pres. To be loving. Per/. To have been loving. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres* Being loving. Perf. . Comp* Per/. Having been loving. 



§ 164. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 105 



PASSIVE VERB. 
§ 164. Conjugation of the regular passive verb be loved. 

Pres. Imp. Pres. Part. Perf. Part. 

Am or be loved. Was loved. Being loved. Loved. 

Declension of the regular passive verb be loved, negatively 

or affirmatively. 

INDICATIVE MODE, 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved, We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, or you are Ye or you are loved, 

loved, 

3. He, she, or it is loved. They are loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved, We were loved, 

2. Thou wert loved, or you were Ye or you were loved, 

loved, 

3. He, she, or it was loved. They were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved, We have been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, or Ye or you have been loved, 

you have been loved. 

3. He, she, or it has been loved. They have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved, We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, or Ye or you had been loved, 

you had been loved, 

3. He, she, or it had been loved. They had been loved. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be loved, We shall or will be loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved, or Ye or you shall or will be 

you shall or will be loved, loved, 

3. He, she, or it shall or will be They shall or will be loved 

loved. 



106 § 164. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 



Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been loved, We shall have been loved, 

2. Thou wilt have been loved, or Ye or you will have been 

you will have been loved, loved. 

3. He, she, or it will have been They will have been loved, 

loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE, 

Subjunctive Form. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be loved, If we he loved, 

2. If thou be loved, or you be If ye or you be loved, 

loved, 

3. If he, she, or it be loved. If they be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were loved, If we w^ere loved, 

2. If thou wert loved, or you If ye or you were loved, 

were loved, 

3. If he, she, or it were loved. If they were loved. 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. v Plural. 

1. If I shall have been loved, If we shall have been loved, 

2. If thou shalt have been loved, If ye or you shall have been 

or you shall have been loved, loved, 

3. If he, she, or it shall have If they shall have been loved. 

been loved. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

2, Sing. Be (thou) loved, or do (thou) be loved. 

2. Plur. Be (ye or you) loved, or do (ye or you) be loved. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Pres. To be loved. Per/. To have been loved. 



§ 165. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 107 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Being loved. Per/. Loved. Comp. Per/. Having been loved. 

§ 165. A verb is conjugated interrogatively in the 
indicative mode, by placing the nominative after the 
verb, or after the first auxiliary. 

Remark. The auxiliaries are generally prefixed to verbs in 
asking questions. 

Declension of the irregular active verb read interrogatively , 
and affirmatively or negatively. 

INDICATIVE MOI>E. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Do 1 read ? Do we read ? 

2. Didst thou read ? or do you Do ye or you read ? 

read ? 

3. Does he, she, or it read ? Do they read ? 

Imperfect Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Did I read ? Did we read ? 

2. Didst thou read ? or did you Did ye or you read ? 

read ? 

3. Did he, she, or it read ? Did they read ? 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Have I read ? Have we read ? 

2. Hast thou read ? or have you Have ye or you read ? 

read ? 

3. Has he, she, or it read ? Have they read ? 

Pluperfect Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Had I read ? Had we read ? 

2. Hadst thou read ? or had you Had ye or you read ? 

read ? 

3. Had he, she, or it read ? Had they read ? 



108 § 165. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Shall I read ? Shall or will we read ? 

2. Shalt or wilt thou read ? or Shall or will you read ? 
shall or will you read ? 

3. Shall or will he, she, or it Shall or will they read ? 

read? 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. Shall I have read? Shall we have read ? 

2. Wilt thou have read ? or will Will ye or you have read ? 

you have read ? 

3. Will he, she, or it have read ? Will they have read ? 

Remark. The auxiliaries may, can, must, could, would and 
should, may be conjugated with this verb in the same manner. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

" Knowledge is increasing." 

What part of speech is increasing ? § 120. Why ? § 120. 
What kind of a verb ? § 124. How is it formed? § 163, R. 
Is it regular or irregular ? § 129, R. 3. What mode ? § 133. 
What tense ? § 140. What is its subject ? Knowledge. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

He is walking. 1 He was bathing 2 himself. Do 3 you ap- 
prove my plans ? Did you know the strangers ? 

Questions — First Course. 

What is a participle ? How many kinds of participles are 
there ? Name them. What is a present participle ? How is 
it formed ? What is the first exception ? Second ? Third ? 
What is a perfect participle ? Define a compound perfect par- 
ticiple. Have all modes the same number of tenses ? In how 
many ways are verbs declined ? Decline may, present tense. 
Might. f Can. Could. Should. Would. Shall. Will. Conjugate 
the verb love. Decline the verb love through all the modes and 
tenses, with the auxiliaries. Conjugate and decline, in like man- 
ner, the verb saw. Conjugate and decline the verb be loving. 

l § 163, R. 2 § 163. 3 §151 and 152. 



§ 166. Etymology — modifications of veres. 109 

Conjugate and decline the passive verb be loved. How is a 
verb conjugated interrogatively? Decline the verb read inter- 
rogatively. 

Questions — Second Course. 

How does the definition of the participle differ from that 
usually given ? Do participles retain the meaning of their 
verbs ? Of what is the present participle of a passive verb 
composed ? How does the present participle partially acquire 
the nature of a noun ? In what other way may the participle 
sometimes become a noun ? How may the present participle 
sometimes become an adverb ? When may a present participle 
denote a past action or state ? How may this participle par- 
tially acquire the nature of an adjective ? How may it acquire 
the nature of an adverb ? How is the compound perfect parti- 
ciple formed? How is will declined when it is a principal 
verb ? Has must a change of termination ? What auxiliaries 
are prefixed to the principal verb to denote a possible or neces- 
sary action ? How is the perfect tense formed ? Pluperfect ? 
First Future? Second Future? How is the subjunctive mode 
formed ? How are the perfect, pluperfect and first future tenses 
of this mode declined ? How does the second future indica- 
tive differ from the second future subjunctive? Describe the 
indicative form of the subjunctive. Are irregular verbs de- 
clined with the same auxiliaries as regular verbs ? What tenses 
of the subjunctive mode are like the same in the indicative ? 
How does the indicative form of the subjunctive mode differ 
from the indicative mode ? What auxiliaries may be conjugated 
with the verb read f 

IRREGULAR VERBS. 

§ 166. Conjugation of the Irregular Verbs. 

Rem. 1. In the list of irregular verbs, there are some that may 
be conjugated regularly ; and such are noted by the letter R. 
Those imperfects and participles that are placed first in the list, 
are preferable to those that occupy the second place. The num- 
ber of defective and irregular verbs, is about 177. 

Rem. 2. Several verbs which formerly had a in the imperfect 
tense, now have o, u or i ; as, bare, brake, drove, got, rang, sang y 
sank, spat, spake, sprang, sware and tare, for bore, broke, drove, got, 

10 



HO 



§ 166. Etymology — MODirrcATioN or ver&& 



rung, sung, sunk, spit, spoke, sprung, swore and tore. The latter 
forms are considered the most correct. 

Rem. 3. The following perfect participles formerly termi- 
nated with en, but this termination is now obsolescent, and the 
terminations of some participles exhibited in the list are gene- 
rally used ; as, baken, boughten, bounden, chidden, cloven, drunken, 
foughten, gotten, tolden, ridden, shapen, haven, sitten, slidden, spit- 
ten, stHdden, stricken, swollen, shriven, waxen, etc. 

Rem. 4. Sometimes the imperfect tense and perfect participle 
are terminated by t instead of ed ; as, tost for tossed; crackt for 
cracked ; leamifor learned. This termination t is in some cases 
allowable ; but generally the regular termination ed is preferable; 
and accords better with the use of the best authors. 

LIST OF IRKEGULAR VERBS CONJUGATEEr. 



Pres. 


Imp. 


Pres. Part. 


Perf. Part. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abiding, 


abode, 


Arise, 


arose, 


arising, 


arisen. 


Be or am, 


was, 


being, 


been. 


Bear, 


bore or bare, 


bearing, 


borne or borrr. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beating, 


beaten or beat. 


Begin, 


began,, 


beginning, 


begun. 


Bend, 


bent, R. 


bending, 


bent, R. 


Bereave, 


bereaved or bereft, bereaving* 


bereaved or bereft 


Beseech, 


besought, 


beseeching, 


besought. 


Bid, 


bid or bade, 


bidding, 


bidden or bid. 


Bind, 


bound, 


binding, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


biting, 


bitten or bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bleeding, 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blowing, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


breaking, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


breeding, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


bringing, 


brought. 


Build, 


built, R. 


building, 


built, R. 


Burst, 


burst, 


bursting, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


buying, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


casting, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, R. 


catching, 


caught, R. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chiding, 


chidden or chid^ 


Choose, 


chose, 


choosing, 


ehosen. 


Cleave, 


cleft or clove, 


cleaving, 


cleft or cloven. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clinging, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clothed or clad, 


clothing, 


clothed or clad. 


Come, 


came, 


coming, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


costing, 


cost. 


Crow, 


crowed or crew, 


crowing, 


crowed. 


Creep, 


crept, K. 


creeping, 


crept, R„ 


Cut, 


cut, 


cutting, 


cut. 



<5 166 Etymology MODIFICATIONS of verbs. 



Ill 



Pres. 

Dare, 
Deal, 
Dig, 

Do, 
Draw, 

Dream, 

Drive, 

Drink, 

Dwell, 

Eat, 

Engrave, 

Fall, 

Feed, 

Feel, 

Fight, 

Find, 

Flee, 

Fling, 

Fly, 

Forsake, 

Freeze, 

Get, 

Gild, 

Gird, 

Give, 

Go, 

Grave, 

Grind, 

Grow, 

Hang, 

Have, 

Hear, 

Heave, 

Hew, 

Hide, 

Hit, 

Hold, 

Hurt, 

Keep, 

Kneel, 

Knit, 

Know, 

Lade, 

Lay, 

Lean, 

Lead, 

Leave, 

Lend, 

Let, 

Lie, 

Lights 



Imp. 
dared or durst, 
dealt, R. 
dug, R. 
did, 
drew, 
dreamt, R. 
drove, 
drank, 
dwelt, R. 
•ate or eat, 
engraved, 
felL, 
fed, 
felt, 
fought, 
found, 
fled, 
flung, 
flew, 
forsook, 
froze, 

g°t, 

gilt, R. 

girt, R. 

gave, 

went, 

graved, 

ground, 

grew, 

hung, R* 

had, 

heard, 

heaved or hove 

hewed, 

hid, 

hit, 

held, 

hurt, 

kept-, 

kneeled or knelt 

knit, R. 

knew, 

laded, 

laid, 

leaned or leant, 

led, 

left, 

lent, 

let, 

lay, 

lighted or lit, 



Pres. Part. 
daring, 
dealing, 
digging, 
doing, 
drawing, 
dreaming, 
driving, 
drinking, 
dwelling, 
^eating, 
'engraving, 
falling, 
feeding, 
feeling, 
fighting, 
finding, 
fleeing, 
flinging, 
•flying, 
forsaking, 
freezing, 
getting, 
gilding, 
girding, 
giving, 
going, 
graving, 
grinding, 
growing, 
hanging, 
having, 
hearing, 
heaving, 
hewing, 
hiding, 
hitting, 
holding, 
hurting, 
keeping, 
kneeling, 
knitting, 
knowing, 
lading, 
laying, 
leaning, 
leading, 
leaving, 
lending, 
letting, 

lying, 
lighting, 



Per/. Part. 
dared, 
dealt, R, 
dug, R. 
done, 
drawn, 
dreamt, R. 
driven, 
drunk, 
dwelt, R. 

eaten. [ven. 

engraved or engra- 
fallen. 
fed. 
felt, 
fought, 
found, 
fled, 
ilung. 
flown, 
forsaken, 
frozen, 
got or gotten. 
gilt,R. 
girt, R. 
given, 
gone. 

graved or graven- 
ground, 
grown, 
hung, R. 
had. 
heard. 

heaved or hoven. 
hewed or hewn, 
hidden or hid. 
hit. 
held, 
hurt, 
kept. 

kneeled or knelt 
knit, R. 
known, 
laden, R. 
laid. 

leaned or leant, 
led. 
left. 
Jent. 
let. 
lain, 
lighted or lit. 



112 § 166. Etymology — modification of verbs. 



Prcs. 


imp. 


Prts. Part. 


Perf. Part. 


Lose, 


lost, 


losing, 


lost. 


Make, 


made, 


making, 


made. 


Mean, 


meant, R. 


meaning, 


meant, R. 


Meet, 


met, 


meeting, 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mowing, 


mowed or mown. 


Pay, 
Put, 
Quit, 
Read, 


paid, 

put, 

quitted or quit, 

read, 


paying, 
putting, 
quitting, 
reading, 


paid. 

put. 

quitted or quit. 

read. 


Reave, 


reft, R. 


reaving, 


reft, R. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rending, 


rent. 


Rid, 


rid, 


ridding, 


rid. 


Ride, 


rode, 


riding, 


ridden or rode. 


Ring, 


rung or rang, 


ringing, 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


rising, 


risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riving, 


riven or rived. 


Run, 


ran, 


running, 


run. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawing, 


sawed or sawn. 


Say, 


said, 


saying, 


said. 


See, 


saw, 


seeing, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought, 


seeking, 


sought. 


Seethe, 


seethed or sod, 


seething, 


seethed or sodden. 


Sell, 


sold, 


selling, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sending, 


sent. 


Set, 
Shake, 


set, 
shook, 


setting, 
shaking, 


set. 
shaken. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaving, 


shaved or shaven. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


shearing, 


sheared or shorn. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shedding, 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, R. 


shining, 


shone, R. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shoeing, 


shod. 


Show, 


showed, 


showing, 


shown, R. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shooting, 


shot. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shutting, 


shut. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shredding, 


shred. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, 


shrinking, 


shrunk. 


Sing, 
Sink, 


sung or sang, 
sunk or sank, 


singing, 
sinking, 


sung, 
sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sitting, 


sat. 


Slay, 

Sleep, 

Slide, 


slew, 
slept, 
slid, 


slaying, 

sleeping, 

sliding, 


slain, 
slept, 
slidden or slid. 


Sling, 
Slink, 


slung, 
slunk, 


slinging, 
slinking, 


slung, 
slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, R. 


slitting, 


slit, R. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smiting, 


smitten or smit. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sowing. 


sowed or sown. 


Speak, 
Speed, 
Spend, 
Spill, 


spoke, 
sped, 
spent, 
spilt, R. 


speaking, 
speeding, 
spending, 
spilling, 


spoken, 
sped, 
spent, 
spilt, R. 



§ 167. EtYMOLOOY— -MODIFICATION OF VERBS. 



113 



Pres, 


Imp. 


Pres. Part. 


Perf. Part. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spinnings 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit or spat, 


spitting, 


spit. 


Split, 


split, 


splitting, 


split. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spreading, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprung or sprang, 


springing, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 


standing, 


stood. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stealing, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


sticking, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


Stinging, 


stung. 


Stride, 


strode or strid, 


striding, 


stridden. 


Strike, 


struck^ 


striking. 


struck. 


String, 


strung, R. 


stringing, 


strung, R~ 


Strive, 


strove, ft. 


striving, 


striven. 


Strow, 


strowed, 


strowing, 


strowed or strown. 


Swear, 


swore, 


swearing, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


sweated or sweat, 


sweating, 


sweated or sweat. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


sweeping, 


swept. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swelling, 


swelled or swollen. 


Swim, 


swum or swam, 


swimming, 


swum. 


Swin<r, 


swung, 


swinging, 


swung. 


Take, 


tooK, 


taking, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


teaching, 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 


tearing, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


telling, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thinking, 


thought. 


Thrive, 


thrived or throve, 


thriving, 


thrived or thriven. 


Throw, 


threw, ft. 


throwing, 


thrown, R. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrusting, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


treading, 


trodden or trod. 


Wake, 


waked vr woke, 


waking, 


waked. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxing, 


waxen. 


Wear, 


wore, 


wearing, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, R. 


weaving, 


woven, R. 


Weep, 


wept, R. 


weeping, 


wept, R. 


Win, 


won, 


winning, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, R. 


winding, 


wound. 


Want, 


want, R. 


wanting, 


want, R. 


Work, 


worked or wrought,working, 


worked or wrought. 


Wring, 


wrung, R. 


wringing, 


wrung, 


Write, 


wrote, 


writing. 


written. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

$167. Defective verbs are those that want some of 
their principal parts. When any of the principal parts are 
wanting, the tenses derived from them are also wanting. 

The defective verbs, are beware, may, can, must, 
might, could, would, should, shall, ought and quoth. 

10* 



114 § 168. Etymology — modifications of verbs. 

Remark. Ought is not varied in familiar style, but in grave 
style est is annexed in the second person singular of the pre- 
sent indicative. Ought is sometimes used in the imperfect tense. 
Quoth is obsolete, except in ludicrous style, and is not varied. 
It is generally used in the imperfect tense in the third person 
with the nominative following it ; as, quoth he. Quoth is sup- 
posed by some to be derived from quod which is sometimes 
used for quoth in old English works. 

IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
<§> 168. Impersonal Verbs are those which can be 
used only in the third person singular, from the nature 
of the subject to which they refer ; as, it rains, it 
snows, it thaws, it thunders, it lightens, it hails. 
The pronoun it which is always joined to these verbs, 
represents no particular noun, but simply a state or 
condition of things. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

" The general gave orders to his soldiers." 

What part of speech is gave f § 120. Why? § 120. Conju- 
gate it ? § 166. Regular or irregular ? § 129. Why? § 129. What 
kind ? § 123. Why ? § 123. What mode ? § 133. Why? § 133. 
What tense? §141. Why? §141. What number? § 146. 
Why ? § 146. What person ? § 147. Why ? § 147. What is its 
subject-nominative ? General, 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

Then Jesus said 1 unto them, Go 2 your way and tell 2 John 
what things ye have seen 3 and heard, 3 how that the blind see. 4 
Saul hath 10 slain 3 his thousands. Till moons shall wax 5 and 
wane no more. He treads 4 the lonely halls. Think 2 on me 
when it shall be 8 well with thee. He wore 6 his cloak when I 
first beheld 1 him, but soon laid 1 it aside. But beware 7 of men. 

" Did you admire 11 my lamp, quoth 7 he, 
As much as I your minstrelsy.'' 

It rained 9 violently. It thaws 9 slowly to-day. It snows. 

1 § l()6and § 141. 5 § 144. 9 § 168. 

2 § 131: and R. 1. 6 § 133. 10 § 147, R. 11. 

3 § 142. 7 § 167> n 5 j34? and 5 152, R, 2. 

4 § 140. 8 § 141, R. 2. 



§§ 169 — 173. Etymology — particles. 115 

Questions — First Course. 
What are defective verbs ? What are impersonal verbs ? 
What does the pronoun i£ joined with these verbs represent? 
From what are verbs derived ? What are the parts of speech 
called which are not inflected ? Name them. How may we 
know to which of these parts, the different particles belong ? 

Questions — Second Course. 

How many irregular and defective verbs are there ? What 
do verbs, which formerly had a in the imperfect tense, now 
have ? Give examples. Name some perfect participles, in 
which the termination en has become obsolescent. Instead of 
ed, what other termination is sometimes used ? When is ought 
varied ? When is quoth used ? 

PARTICLES. 

§ 169. The parts of speech not inflected, are called 
particles. They consist of adverbs, prepositions, con- 
junctions and interjections. To which of these parts 
the different particles belong, depends much upon their 
construction in a sentence. The same particle may be 
an adverb in one construction, a preposition in anoth- 
er, and a conjunction in another. 

ADVERBS. 

<§> 170. An adverb is a particle used to modify or 
limit the meaning of a verb, a participle, an adjective 
or another adverb ; as, " James studies diligently ;" 
" he is remarkably faithful." 

$ 171. Adverbs may be divided into classes accord- 
ing to the nature of the modification denoted by them. 

<§> 172. There ^re/our classes of adverbs; adverbs 
of time, of manner, of place and of quantity. 

<§> 173. Adverbs of time are those which answer to 
the question when 1 how often ? 

Remark. Adverbs of time admit of the following subdivi- 
sions; viz. 



1 16 §§ 174, 175. Etymology — particles. 

1. Of present time ; as, forthwith, immediately, instantly, now> 
presently, to-day. 

2. Of past time ; as, ago, anciently, already, erewhile, formerly, 
heretofore, hitherto, lately, recently, since, yesterday. 

3. Of future timJt ; as, by-and-by, erelong, henceforth, hereafter, 
Soon, to-morrow. 

4. Of absolute time ; as, always, ago, continually, eternally, ever, 
never, perpetually. 

5. Of relative time ; as, after, as-far-as, as-soon-as, as-long-as, 
before, betimes, early, late, long, seasonably, till, tlten, until, when, 
while, whilst. 

6. Of repeated time ; as, again, daily, ever-and-anon, frequently, 
monthly, now-and-then, occasionally, often, oft, once, rarely, seldom, 
sometimes, twice, thrice, iveekly, yearly. 

7. Of ordinal time ; as, first, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, etc. 

§ 174. Those adverbs which answer to the question, 
how, are called adverbs of manner. 

Rem. 1. These admit of the following subdivisions : 

1. Of affirmation ; as, aye, amen, doubtless, certainly, forsooth, 
indeed, surely, truly, undoubtedly, verily, yea, yes. 

2. Of quality ; as, as-well-as, foolishly, unjustly, quickly, well, 
wisely, etc. 

3. Of cause ; as, why y wherefore. 

4. Of mode ; as, across, apart, asunder, else, however, howsoever, 
hoiv, like, much, necessary, otherwise, particularly, so, somehow, thus, 
together. 

5. Of doubt ; as, haply, perhaps, perchance, peradventure, possibly. 

6. Of negation ; as, no, nay, not, nowise. 

Rem. 2. When the following adverbs, why, wherefore, where, 
whether, whence, whereto and whereunto are used to ask questions, 
they are interrogative s, yet belong to the same classes under 
which they are arranged. 

<§> 175. Those adverbs which answer to the question 
where, whither or whence, are called adverbs of place. 

Remark. Adverbs of place, admit of the following subdivi- 
sions : 

1. " Of place in which ;" as, above, about, around, anywhere, be- 
low, elsewhere, everywhere, here, hereabout, nowhere, somewhere, there- 
about, there, wherever, within, without, whereabout, where, herein, 
yonder. 



§§ 176, 177. Etymology — particles. 117 

2. " Of place to which ;" as, backwards, back, down, downwards, 
forth, forwards, hither, in, inwards, thereunto, thereto, thither, where- 
to, whereunto, whither. 

3. " Of place from which ;" as, away, hence, out, thence, whence. 

4. " Of the order of place;" as, first, second, thirdly, fourthly, 
fifthly. 

§ 176. Those adverbs which answer to the question 
how much 1 are called adverbs of quantity. 

Rem. 1. Adverbs of quantity admit of the following subdi- 
visions : 

1. " Of abundance or excess ;" as, altogether, all besides, chief- 
ly, completely, clear, entirely, excessively, extravagantly, far, full, ful- 
ly, generally, greatly, intoltrably, immeasurably, inconceivably, in- 
finitely. 

2. " Of deficiency or abatement ;" as, almost, barely, but, hard- 
ly, little, nearly, only, partly, partially, scarcely. 

3. "Of equality ;" as, even, enough, equally, sufficiently so. 
Rem. 2. Even, even-so, how, however and howsoever, are adverbs 

of quantity, when they denote in what degree. 

Rem. 3. When hence, now, since, still, then, when, and yet de- 
note relation of time, they are adverbs; but when they denote 
a connection of thought, they should be regarded as conjunc- 
tions. 

Rem. 4. But, used in the sense of only, is an adverb ; but 
when it denotes opposition, it is a conjunction. 

Rem. 5. However, denoting manner, is an adverb ; but, con- 
nection of thought, it is a conjunction. 

CONNECTIVE ADVERBS. 

$ 177. Connective adverbs are such as not only 
denote some relation of time, manner, place or quanti- 
ty, but serve to connect propositions and sentences ; as, 
" I left when he arrived." " I went where my father 
was buried." In these examples, when and where not 
only denote time and place but they serve to connect 
the sentences in which they are placed. The follow- 
ing particles are frequently used as connective adverbs, 
as, as-well-as, again, also, after, as, besides, before, 
ere, else, even, hence, otherwise, since, so, so-as, then, 
thence, till, until, when, where, while or whilst. 



118 § 178. Etymology — particles. 

Rem. 1. When any of the above particles denote connection 
of thought, they should be parsed as conjunctions. 

Rem. 2. Some adverbs modify equally two verbs in different 
propositions ; as, " I reside in the northern regions, where the 
sun seldom warms the earth with his genial rays." 

Rem. 3. When prepositions are annexed to the adverbs where 
and there, they are substitutes for pronouns ; as, wherein for in 
which ; therein for in that ; whereby for by which ; thereby for by 
that ; thereto for to that ; whereto and whereunto for to what Such 
compounds are not generally used by modern writers, but are 
mostly found in ancient productions. 

MODIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 

<§> 178. Adverbs are modified only by the degrees 
of comparison. A few adverbs are compared regularly 
like adjectives, thus : 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative, 

Long, longer, longest. 

Soon, sooner, soonest. 

Often, of'tener, oftenest. 

Wisely, more wisely, most wisely. 

Justly, more justly, most justly. 

Justly, less justly, least justly. 

Rem. 1. Some adverbs are compared irregularly, thus : 

Far, farther, farthest. 

Badly or ill, worse, worst. 

Little, less, least. 

Much, more, most. 

Forth, further, furthest. 

Well or good, better, best. 

Rem. 2. Adverbs of quality generally admit comparison by 
prefixing the comparatives more and most, less or least ; as, more 
.discreetly ', most discreetly ; more wickedly, most wickedly ; less cul- 
pably, least culpably. In these cases, however, the degree of com- 
parison belongs to the adverb prefixed, and therefore they should 
be parsed separately. The same should be done with respect 
to adjectives thus compared. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

" The matter will presently be decided." 

What part of speech is presently ? § 17L Why ? § 171. What 



§ 178. Etymology — exercises. 119 

kind of an adverb ? § 174. Why ? § 174. What does it modi- 
fy ? Will be decided. 

EXAMPLES- FOR PARSING, 

When 1 did Frederic the Great die ? To-day, 2 if ye will hear 
his voice, harden not your hearts. She went away yesterday. 2 
That circumstance occurred seasonably. 2 The periodical is 
published monthly. 3 It now and then happens favorably. 4 Se- 
condly, 2 we will consider what duty requires. The suggestions 
of inclination are sometimes 3 for the dictates of conscience. 
You read too 5 little. 5 He conducted very 5 improperly. 4 I see 
him often, 3 but my brother sees him oftener. 6 He swam quite 7 
across the river. The more 8 frequently 3 you read with care, 
the more 8 you will improve. When 9 thou callest, I will answer 
thee. They doubted whereunto 10 this would grow. 

Que s ti ons — First Course. 

What is an adverb ? How may adverbs be divided into clas- 
ses ? How many classes are there ? What are they ? What 
is an adverb of time ? Of manner ? Of place ? Of quantity ? 
What are adverbial conjunctions ? What particles may be used 
as adverbial conjunctions? How are adverbs modified? How 
are they compared ? 

Questions — Second Course. 

Of how many subdivisions will adverbs of time admit ? Name 
them. Of how many subdivisions will adverbs of manner ad- 
mit? Repeat them. When are the adverbs why, ivherefore, 
where, whether, whence, whereto, and whereunto used as interroga- 
tives ? What subdivisions do the adverbs of place admit of? 
What subdivisions do the adverbs of quantity admit of? When 
are even, even so, how, however and howsoever adverbs of quantity? 
When are hence, now, since, still, then, when and yet adverbs, and 
when conjunctions ? When is however an adverb ? When is 
but an adverb ? When any of the particles mentioned in § 179 
denote connection of thought, what are they called ? Can ad- 
verbs ever modify two verbs in different propositions ? Under 
what circumstances are where and there substitutes for pronouns ? 



1 § 174, Rem. 2. 


5 § 176. 


8 § 179, 


2 § 173. 


6 § 178. 


^ § 177. 


3 § 173,6. 


7 § 176. 


10 § 177, Rem. 3. 


« § 174. 







120 



§ 179. Etymology — particles. 



Name some adverbs which are compared irregularly, 
may adverbs of quality admit of comparison ? 



How 



PREPOSITIONS 



<§> 179. " A preposition is a particle which expresses 
the relation between a noun or pronoun and some pre- 
ceding word ; as, " I went to New York." " A book 
lies before me." — Andrews and Stoddard. 

Rem. I, Prepositions are so called, because they are placed 
before the nouns or pronouns expressed or implied which they 
govern. 

Rem. 2. A preposition expresses a relation between two terms 
called the antecedent aud subsequent term. The antecedent term 
may be an adverb, adjective, participle, verb, noun or pronoun, and 
the subsequent may be a noun or pronoun ; as, "James went from 
London to York." Here the verb went is the antecedent term, 
and the two nouns London and York are the subsequents \from 
denoting the relation between London and went, and to denoting 
the relation between went and York. 



LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 



Above, 


between, 


over-against, 


about, 


betwixt, 


past, 


aboard, 


beyond, 


round, 


accord ing-to, 


by, 


respecting, 


across, 


but, 


save, saving, 


after, 


concerning, 


since, 


against, 


down, 


through, 


along, 


during, 


throughout, 


amid, 


except, 


till, 


amidst, 


excepting, 


to, 


among, 


from -beneath, 


together-with, 


amongst, 


from-before, 


touching. 


around, 


for, 


toward, 


as-to, 


from-among, 


towards, 


aside-from, 


from, 


under, 


at, 


instead- of, 


undermost, 


athwart, 


in, 


until, 


before, 


into, 


unto, 


behind, 


notwithstanding, 


up, 


below, 


of, 


upon, 


beneath, 


on, 


with, 


beside, 


out- of, 


within, 


besides, 


over, 


without. 



§ 179. Etymology — particles. 121 

Rem. 1. The words in the above list are prepositions, when 
they have a subsequent term of relation expressed or implied ; 
but when they have none, they are adverbs or conjunctions ; 
except when some of them are affixed to verbs and form a part 
of a compound verb. See § 129, R. 4. 

Rem. 2. But is a preposition when it has the meaning of ex- 
cept or aside from ; as, " All went but James," i. e. except or aside 
from James. " All but the nightingale gazed with joy." 

Rem. 3. Nouns or subsequent terms are frequently under- 
stood after prepositions. Also the antecedent is often under- 
stood. 

Rem. 4. Two prepositions sometimes occur together and 
form compound prepositions ; as, according-to, out-of, as-to. 

Rem. 5. Two prepositions sometimes come together and are 
not parsed as compound prepositions, but a noun of place or 
some other noun is understood between them ; as, from beneath, 
i. e.from the place beneath ; from above, from before, from behind, 
from among. 

Rem. 6. In is generally placed before the names of countries, 
cities and large towns ; as, " He dwelt in France." " He lives in 
Edinburgh." " He resides in New York." 

Rem. 7. Into is generally used after verbs of motion ; as, " He 
went into the city." 

Rem. 8. " Jit is used before the names of villages, single 
houses and cities which are distant ; as, " He resides at Ando- 
ver." " He boards at the Astor House." 

Rem. 9. During is used when the action or state continues 
through the whole^period of time mentioned ; as, " I have per- 
formed much labor during this week." But when the action 
or state does not continue through the whole period of time 
mentioned, in or within should be used ; as, " There have been 
twenty lectures within or in twenty-four hours." 

Rem. 10. Between and betwixt refer to two nouns only ; as, 
" There was great friendship between David and Jonathan." 

Rem. 11. Among, amongst, amid and amidst refer to more 
than two nouns. 

Rem. 12. Except and save are prepositions when they denote 
the same as aside from or without ; as, " All the family rode out 
this afternoon except or save James." 

" Pride no worth allows, 

Save what from riches or dominion flows." 

Some have considered except and save in the construction 

11 



122 § 179. Etymology — exercises. 

above as verbs in the imperative mode. But as they imply in 
such a construction neither command nor exhortation, I see no 
reason for thus classifying them. 

Rem. 13. Except and save sometimes govern a part or the 
whole of a succeeding clause or sentence ; as, " Save that the 
Holy Ghost witnesseth in every city, saying, that bonds and af- 
flictions abide me." Acts 20: 23. 

Rem. 14. Sometimes a part of the proposition which save 
governs, is implied ; as, " But God forbid that I should glory, 
save [that I should glory] in the cross of Christ." Gal. 6: 14. 
" Let them not meet this sea without a shore ! save [that they 
meet] in an ark." — Byron. 

Rem. 15. Excepting and saving are generally used like except 
and save. 

Rem. 16. Prepositions are sometimes construed as adverbs 
when they follow a verb ; as, " Go on." " Go to." 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

"He rode with us." 

What part of speech is with! § 179. Why? § 179. Be- 
tween what words does it show a relation ? Between rode and 
us. § 179, Rem. 2. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

The summit is above 1 the region of storms. The boat sailed 
across the river. The Greeks marched boldly against the foe. 
A meteor shot athwart 1 the heavens. Aside-from 1 this, I should 
have no objection to your going to 1 the place. Hell from 
beneath 2 is moved to meet thee at thy coming. A good under- 
standing existed between 3 them. He stood like a rock amid 4 
ocean's wild waves. They all prospered save 5 the eldest. 

" 1 feel like one who treads alone 
Some banquet hall deserted. — 
"Whose lights are fled, whose garlands, dead, 
And all but 6 me departed." — T. Moore % 

Que s ti on s — First Course. 
What is a preposition ? 



i & 179. 3 § 179, R. 10. 5 § 179, R. 12. 

2 § 179, R. 5. 4 § 179, R. 11. 6 § 179, R. 2. 



§ 180 — 183. Etymology — particles. 123 



Questions — Second Course. 
Why are prepositions so called ? What does a preposition 
express ? Give an instance where a verb is antecedent to two 
subsequent terms, and explain it. When are the words, given 
in the list, prepositions ? When is but a preposition ? Are 
nouns frequently understood after prepositions ? Give an ex- 
ample. Do two prepositions ever occur together ? Where is 
in generally placed ? How is into used ? When is during 
used ? To what do between and betwixt refer ? To what do 
among, amongst, amid and amidst refer ? When are except and 
save prepositions ? Do except and save ever govern a part or a 
whole sentence ? Give an instance. Give an example where 
a part of the preposition, which save governs, is implied ? How 
are except and saving used ? 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

§180. Conjunctions are particles that connect words, 
propositions or sentences. 

§ 181. Conjunctions are divided into six classes, ac- 
cording to their meaning ; the copulative, the disjunc- 
tive, the adversative, the conditional, the causal, and 
the final. 

<§> 182. The copulative conjunctions connect those 
things that are considered together ; as, and, both. 

Rem. 1. And means add; as, " The book is worth four shil- 
lings and sixpence ;" or, with sixpence added. 

Rem. 2. Both is often placed before the first of two nouns 
that are to be connected, to mark the connection more forcibly. 

§ 183. Disjunctive conjunctions connect those things 
that are considered separately ; as, either, or, neither, 
nor, than and as ; as, " For I am persuaded that net- 
ther death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor 
things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor 
depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to separate 
us from the love of God." 

Rem. 1. In poetry or is used instead of either corresponding 
with or, for the convenience of measure ; as, 

" The dam assiduous sets 
Not to be tempted from her task 
Or [either] by sharp hunger or by smooth delight." 



124 §§ 184 — 187. Etymology — particles. 

Rem. 2. Nor is used frequently in like manner ; as, 

tl Again he comes ; nor dart nor lance avail, 
Nor the wild plunging of the tortured horse ) 
Though man and man's avenging arms assail, 
Vain are his weapons, vainer is his force." 

Childe Harold, Canto I, Stanza 77. 

Rem. 3. Jls is sometimes used as a copulative conjunction ; 
as, "He as a patriot deserves praise." 

$184. Adversative conjunctions express opposition ; 
as, but, notwithstanding, nevertheless, yet, still. 

Rem. 1. But, regarded as a connective, usually denotes oppo- 
sition. 

Rem. 2. Yet and still are conjunctions when they denote con- 
nection of thought, and adverbs when they express relation of 
time. 

<§> 185. Conditional conjunctions denote suspension 
or doubt ; as, if, though, although, unless, except, per- 
haps, peradventure, lest, whether, provided that. 

Rem. 1. But and that sometimes occur together, and denote 
condition or doubt. 

§ 186. Causal conjunctions denote cause or reason ; 
as, for, because, as, si?ice, whereas, seeing that, foras- 
much as, inasmuch as. 

Rem. 1. As and since are causal conjunctions when they de- 
note cause. 

Rem. 2. For and that sometimes occur together, and are con^ 
strued as a causal conjunction. 

$187. Final conjunctions denote purpose, object, 
or result of a preceding proposition ; as, that, so that, 
therefore, wherefore, and now and then when they de- 
note a connection of thought between the preceding 
and subsequent propositions. 

Rem. 1. When so that occur together, sometimes the particle 
so is taken as an adverb, and qualifies a word in the preceding 
proposition ; as, " Common sense, I say again, would combine 
practice with theory, so (in such a manner) that the teacher know- 
ing the conformity between thought and vocal language, may 
not only express this conformity by his own voice, but explain 



§ 187. Etymology — particles. 125 

it to his pupils. So here is an adverb of manner, and modifies 
combine." — Porter's Rhet. Read. 

Rem. 2. When so and that occur together, and simply de- 
note the meaning of that as a final conjunction, they are parsed 
together as a final conjunction ; as, "He cried aloud, so that [to 
the end that] some one might come to his relief." 

EXERCISES LN PARSING. 

" Ye call me Master and Lord." 

What part of speech is and? § 180. Why? § 180. What 
kind ? § 182. Why ? § 182. What does it connect ? Master 
and Lord. 

EXAMPLES IN PARSING. 

I saw the dead, both 1 small and 1 great, stand before God. — 
Bible. Mercy is better than 2 sacrifice. Furthermore, 3 the pol- 
icy of this measure is very questionable. Did he go or 4 stay? 
He was either 4 ashamed or 4 afraid. He could neither 4 do it 
himself, nor 4 procure any one to do it for him. External 
things are naturally variable, but 5 truth and reason are always 
the same. Notwithstanding 5 his indolence, he appears to have 
effected much. Though 6 he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 
He removed his camp since 7 the enemy had cut off his sup- 
plies. They landed at the island 8 that they might procure 
water. 

Que s ti on s — First Course. 

What is a conjunction ? How are conjunctions divided ? 
Name the different classes. What is a copulative conjunction ? 
Disjunctive? Adversative? Conditional? Final? 

Questions — Second Course. 

What does and mean ? What does than denote ? In poetry 
how is or used ? Nor ?■ What does but denote ? When are 
yet and still conjunctions ? When are as and since conjunctions ? 
When so that occur together, how are they sometimes parsed ? 
Whe.n is the phrase so that a final conjunction ? 

1 § 182, Rem. 2. 4 § 183. 7 § 186. 

2 § 183. * § 184. 8 § 187. 

3 § 182. e § 185> 

11* 



126 §§ 189, 190. Etymology — particles. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

§189. Interjections are words uttered to express 
some sudden or strong feeling of the mind ; as, " Oh ! 
I have alienated my friend ;" " Alas ! I fear for life ;" 
" O virtue ! how amiable thou art !" 

<§> 190. They may be divided into sixteen classes 
according to the kind of feelings they generally ex- 
press •: 

1. Of joy ; as, eigh ! hey ! io ! 

2. Of grief or sorrow ; as, ah ! alas ! alack ! oh ! welladay ! 

3. Of surprise ; as, oh ! ha ! hah ! what ! 

4. Of astonishment ; as, ha ! heigh ! indeed ! prodigious ! real- 
ly ! strange ! 

5. Of exultation ; as, aha! huzza! heyday! hurrah! 

6. Of calling attention ; as, lo ! 

7. Of requesting silence ; as, ivhist ! hist ! mum ! 

8. Of aversion; avaunt! away! begone! poh! fie! off! 

9. Of contempt ; as, fudge ! hugh ! poh ! pshaw ! pish ! tush ! 
tut! 

10. Of pain; as, ah ! oh! eh! 

11. Of calling aloud ; as, ho ! soho ! hollo ! 

12. Of laughter ; as, ha ! ha ! haha ! 

13. Of stopping ; as, avast ! whoh ! 

14. Of wishing ; as, oh ! 

15. Of languor; as, heigh-ho"! 

16. Of salutation ; as, all-hail ! hail! welcome! 

Rem. 1. The words behold, hark, bah, see and hail, should be 
considered as verbs in the imperative mode and not interjec- 
tions as some suppose. The strongest feelings may be expres- 
sed by command or exclamations. Come, go, rise, hasten, fly, 
etc., might be construed as interjections with as much propriety 
as look, see, etc. 

Rem. 2. The following remarks from Murray's grammar 
will illustrate still farther the object and use of interjections. 

" Interjections are not so much the signs of thought, as of 
feeling. That a creature so inured to articulate sound as man 
is, should acquire the habit of uttering, without reflection, cer- 
tain vocal sounds, when he is assaulted by any strong passion, 
or becomes conscious of any intense feeling, is natural enough. 



§ 190. Etymology — parsing. 127 

Indeed, by continual practice, this habit becomes so powerful, 
that, in certain cases, we should find it difficult to resist it, even 
if we wished to do so. When attacked by acute pain, it is 
hardly possible for us to refrain from saying oh ! ah ! etc. ; and 
when we are astonished at any narrative or event, the words 
strange! prodigious! indeed! break from us, without any ef- 
fort of the will. Interjections, though frequent in discourse, 
do not often occur in elegant composition. Unpractised wri- 
ters, however, are apt to abound in the use of them, in order, 
as they imagine, to give pathos to their style, which is nearly 
the same as if, with the view of rendering conversation witty 
or humorous, one were to interrupt it with frequent peals of 
laughter. The appearance of violent emotion in others, does 
not always raise violent emotion in us ; our hearts, for the 
most part, are more effectually subdued, by a sedate and sim- 
ple utterance, than by strong interjections and theatrical ges- 
ture. At any rate, composure is more graceful than extrava- 
gance ; and therefore, a multitude of these passionate words 
and particles will generally, at least on common occasions, sa- 
vor more of levity than of dignity, of want of thought than of 
keen sensation. This holds in common discourse, as well as 
in writing. They who wish to speak often, and have little to 
say, are apt to abound in exclamations ; wonderful, amazing, 
prodigious, O dear, dear me, surprising, astonishing, and the like ; 
and hence the two frequent use of such words tends to breed 
a suspicion that one labors under a scantiness of ideas. Inter- 
jections denoting imprecation, and those in which the Divine 
name is irreverently mentioned, are always offensive to a pious 
mind ; and the writer or speaker, who contracts a habit of in- 
troducing them, may without breach of charity, be suspected 
of profaneness." — Vol. I. page 129. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

" O the bliss, the pain of dying !" 

What part of speech is O? § 189. Why? § 189. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 
Alas! I am ruined! O! that they were wise ! Hurrah for the 
President ! Hark l l I thought I heard the tramp of horses. 
Really, 1 you are in a fine situation ! What ! could ye not watch 
one hour ? 

1 § 189. 



128 §§ 191 — 193. Etymology — derivation. 



Questions — First Course. 

What is an interjection? How are they divided? Name the 
different classes. 

Questions — Second Course. 

How should the words behold, hark, bah, see and hail be con- 
sidered ? Give the substance of the remarks contained in the 
extract from Murray's Grammar. 

DERIVATION. 

$ 191. Derivation is that part of Etymology that 
explains the manner in which derivative words are 
formed from their primitives. 

DERIVATION OF ARTICLES. 

$ 192. The articles are derived as follows : 

1. The is from the Saxon the which is from thran, to take. 
It has nearly the same meaning as this or that. 

2. An is from the Saxon an or ane, denoting one. 

DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 

<§> 193. Nouns are derived from verbs, nouns, adjec- 
tives and participles, 

1. By annexing er or or, denoting office ; as, print, printer ; 
collect, collector. 

2. By changing e final into or, denoting employment ; as, dis- 
tribute, distributor. 

3. By changing the termination of the verb into ation, ition, 
sion, Hon, ce or se ; as, denominate, denomination ; oppose, opposi- 
tion ; commit, commission ; inflict, infliction ; pretend, pretence ; 
expand, expanse. 

4. By annexing age, ance, ment or ure ; as, dote, dotage ; de- 
part, departure ; command, commandment ; deliver, deliverance. 

5. Nouns and verbs are sometimes spelled alike, and distin- 
guished only by pronunciation ; as, desert, desert ; record, record. 
In other cases their spelling and pronunciation are alike, and 
they are distinguished only by the sense of the passage ; as, 
measure, to measure ; cry, to cry. 



§ 194. Etymology — derivation. 129 

Rem. 1. Nouns are formed from nouns, 

1. By annexing ery, ry or y, denoting habit or situation of 
life; as, knave, knavery ; cutler citlery ; fool, foolery. 

2. By annexing dom, head, rick or ship, denoting office, char- 
acter or dominion ; as, king, kingdom ; block, blockhead ; bishop, 
bishoprick; lady, ladyship. 

3. By annexing ian, denoting profession ; as, physic, physi- 
cian. 

4. By annexing bin, erel, nel, kin, xdet or ling, denoting dimi- 
nution ; as, cock, cockerel ; bob, bobbin ; tun, tunnel ; river, riv- 
ulet. 

5. By annexing adz or age ; as, lemon, lemonade ; cord, cord- 
age. 

6. By annexing ist, denoting those that are devoted to the 
subject denoted by the primitive. 

7. By prefixing an adjective or another noun, and thus 
forming a compound noun ; as ; holy, holy-rood ; sea, sea-weed. 

Rem. 2. Nouns are formed from adjectives ; 

1. By changing t into ce or cy : as, brilliant, brilliance, bril- 
liancy. 

2. By annexing done, hood, ist, ity, ness, ship ; as, wise, wisdom ; 
false, falsehood ; loyal, loyalist ; manly, manliness ; hard, hardship. 

3. By changing, in some cases, some of the letters and an- 
nexing th ; as, warm, warmth ; high, height ; long, length ; true, 
truth, 

DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 

<§> 194. Adjectives are derived from verbs, partici- 
ples, adjectives or verbs. 

Rem. 1. Adjectives are derived from verbs, 

1. By annexing able, ible, ive, ory or tory, and sometimes 
changing some of the letters ; as, note, notable ; solve, solvible ; in- 
terrogate, interrogatory ; console, consolatory. 

2. By prefixing un, or a word which is not a part of the verb 
from which the participle is derived ; as, learned, unlearned ; 

faring, way-faring ; creating, all-creating. 

Rem. 2. Adjectives are derived from adjectives, 

1. By annexing ish, some, ly or y; as, red, reddish; glad, glad- 
some ; true, truly ; swarth, swarthy. 

2. By prefixing dis, in or un ; as, similar, dissimilar ; true, un- 
true ; consistent, inconsistent, 



130 § 195. Etymology — derivation. 

Rem. 3. Adjectives are derived from nouns, 

1. By annexing able, ible, less, en, some, ish, ly,ful, al, eous, ious, 
ous, ic, ical, ine, ly, y, and sometimes omitting or changing some 
of the final letters ; as, reason, reasonable ; access, accessible ; 
name, nameless ; oak, oaken ; toil, toilsome ; knave, knavish ; youth, 
youthful ; notion, notional ; right, righteous ; glory, glorious ; vil- 
lain, villainous ; democrat, democratical ; adamant, adamantine ; 
rock, rocky* 

2. By annexing ed; as, saint, sainted. 

3. Nouns frequently become adjectives without change of 
form ; as, gold, gold leaf. 

4. Adjectives derived from proper names terminate in vari- 
ous ways ; as, Newton, Newtonian ; Cicero, Ciceronian. 



DERIVATION OF PRONOUNS. 

$ 195. All the pronouns are derived from the Saxon 
They are derived as follows. 

En a-. Sax. En or. Sax. 

Nom. I, ie, Nom. we, us, 

Poss. my or mine, min, Poss. our or ours, 

Obj. me. me. Obj. us. 



ure 
us. 



Nom. thou, thu, Nom. ye or you, 

Poss. thy or thine, thin, Poss. your or yours, eower, 

Obj. thee. the. Obj. you. eovv. 

Nom. he, he, Nom. they, thoege, 

Poss. his, hys, Poss. their or theirs, herortheora, 

Obj. him. him, Obj. them. hem. 

Nom. she, heo, Nom. they, thoege, 

Poss. her or hers, hera or hyra, Poss. their or theirs, herortheora, 
Obj. her. her. Obj. them. hem. 

Nom. they, thcege, 

Poss. their or theirs, he or theora, 
Obj. them. hem. 



Nom. it, 


hit, 


Poss. its, 


h y r > 


Obj. it. 


hit. 


DERIVATION OF RI 


Eng. 


Sax. 


Nom. who, 


hwo, 


Poss. whose, 


whos, 


Obj. whom, 


whom, 


Nom. that, 


thoet or that. 


this. 


this. 



Eng. 


Sax. 


which, 


whiche, 


which, 


whos, 


which, 


whiche, 


what. 


hwat, 



§§ 196, 197. Etymology — derivation. 131 

DERIVATION OF VERBS. 

<§> 196. Verbs are derived either from nouns, adjec- 
tives or verbs. 

L Verbs are derived from nouns. 

1. Verbs aVe formed from nouns by annexing the termina- 
tion ize ; as, method, methodize ; system, systemize ; moral, moralize. 
When the primitive ends with a vowel, the consonant t is pre- 
fixed to the termination ; as, stigma, stigmatize. 

2. By annexing en ; as, length, lengthen ; height, heighten. 

3. By annexing ate ; as, origin, originate. 

4. By changing a consonant ; as, advice, advise. 

5. By annexing e mute ; as, breath, breathe ; bath, bathe. 

6. By annexing^, and changing u into i and dropping m; 
as, stratum, stratify. 

II. Verbs are derived from adjectives, 

1. By annexing ate ; as, domestic, domesticate. 

2. By annexing en or n ; as, deep, deepen ; wide, widen. 

3. By annexing ize ; as, civil, civilize. 

4. By annexing^/, and dropping e mute ; as, brute, brutify. 

5. By prefixing to ; as, warm, to warm ; lame, to lame ; cool, to 
cool ; dry, to dry ; forward, to forward. 

III. Verbs are derived from verbs, 

By prefixing a, be, dis, for, fore, mis, over, out, un, under, up 
and with ; as, rise, arise ; sprinkle, besprinkle ; own, disown ; bid, 
forbid ; see, foresee ; take, mistake ; look, overlook ; run, outrun ; 
fasten, unfasten ; go, undergo ; hold, uphold ; draw, withdraw. 

(For the derivation of participles, see Etymology, p. 90, § 153, 
Rem. L) 

DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 

<§> 197. Adverbs are derived from adjectives, and 
sometimes from participles and nouns, by annexing ly ; 
as, grateful, gratefully ; loving, lovingly ; connected, 
connectedly. Ly is a contraction of like, anciently 
written lie ; as, sweetlike, sweetlie, sweetly. Most of 
the adverbs of manner are thus formed. 

Rem. 1. Very is derived from the French vrai, or the Latin 
verus, denoting true. — Dr. Webster. Rather is the comparative 
of the ancient rath, soon. 

Rem. 2. Many adverbs are compounded of two or more En- 



132 § 198. Etymology — derivation. 

glish words ; as, always, already, elsewhere, herein, otherwise, some- 
times, to-day, thereby, wherewithal, etc. 

DERIVATION OF PREPOSITIONS. 

<§> 198. The prepositions are supposed to be derived 
as follows : 

1. About is from the Saxon abutan, and generally denotes 
around. 

2. Above is from the Saxon abufan, and denotes preeminence 
in point of place, rank, etc. 

3. Across is from the English a denoting at, and the noun 
cross, and denotes at cross. 

4. After is the comparative of aft, and denotes behind, in the 
rears. 

5. Against is from logeanes, and denotes opposition. 

6. Along is from a and long, denoting at long. 

7. Amid is from a and mid, and denotes middle. 

8. Amidst is from a and midst, and denotes at midst. 

9. Among is ahbreviated from amongst. 

10. Amongst is from a and the Saxon particle mongst, denot- 
ing mixed. 

11. Around is from a and round, and denotes encircling, 

12. ^ is from the Saxon ae£, and denotes nearness or presence. 

13. Athwart is from a and thwart, and denotes across. 

14. Before is from oe and /ore, and denotes in front. 

15. Behind is from the Saxon behindan, and denotes a£ /Tie 
6ac^ of another. 

16. Below is from oe and Zow, and denotes under. 

17. Beneath is from oe and neatfi, and denotes oeZow. 

18. Beside is from 6c and side, and denotes moreover when 
used as a conjunction. 

19. Besides is from oe and sides, and denotes over and above. 

20. Between is from the Saxon betweonan, and denotes irc/er- 
medictfe. 

21. Betwixt is from the Saxon betwyx, and denotes between. 

22. Beyond is from the Saxon beyeond, and denotes gone fa/. 

23. Ify is from the Saxon big or oe. 

24. Concerning is from the present participle of the verb to 
concern. 

25. Down is from o5im, and denotes descent. 

26. Duiing is from an old verb dure, and denotes continuing. 



§ 199. Etymology — derivation. 133 



27. Except is from the verb to except, and denotes aside from. 

28. Excepting is a present participle of the same verb, but 
has acquired a different meaning in some cases. 

29. For is from the Saxon for or fore, and generally denotes 
cause or instead of 

30. From is from the Saxon fram, denoting beginning. 

31. In is from the Latin in. 

32. Into is composed of in and to. 

33. Of is from the Saxon of 

34. Off is from the Dutch af 

35. On is from the German an. 

36. Out of is composed of out and o/. 

37. Over is from the Saxon ober. 

38. Through is from the Saxon /AwrA. 

39. Throughout is composed of through and ow/. 

40. TO/ is from the Saxon til, denoting the end. 

41. To is from the Saxon to. 

42. Towards is composed of fo and ward, signifying to look. 

43. Under is from the Saxon under, meaning on the under side. 

44. Underneath is composed of under and neaih. 

45. t/nfrtf is composed of wn and til. 

46. £7wfo is composed of un and fo. 

47. Up is from the Saxon up. 

48. £7/?o?i is composed of up and on. 

49. With is from the Saxon with. 

50. Within is composed of with and wt, 

51. Without is composed of wntfi and oztf. 

Remark. There are some words occasionally used as prepo- 
sitions, not included in the above list. 

DERIVATION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

$ 199. The most of the conjunctions are derived 
from the Saxon. For information upon this subject, 
the author is principally indebted to Home Tooke and 
Dr. Webster. The following remarks upon the deriva- 
tion of conjunctions, are believed to be usually correct. 

1. Although is derived from the Saxon eal, denoting all, and 
though the imperative of thah or thrah, denoting give, grant or al- 
low. The meaning is, Grant or allow all the nature of the 
case requires. 

2. An, used in some ancient authors, denotes if or whether ; 

12 



134 § 199. Etymology — derivation. 

and is probably derived from the imperative gif, which is from 
gifan, to give or grant* 

3. And is derived from and or anad, the imperative <of ananad,. 
and means to add. 

4. As is probably contracted from the German als, and is used 
as an adverbial conjunction when it denotes comparison, pro- 
portion or time, but as a conjunction when it denotes simply a 
connection of thought; as, "As he has no means of support, I 
will regard him as an object of beneficence." 

5. Because is derived from he and cause, equivalent to by and 
cause, and denotes cause or reason. 

6. Both is derived from butea, butwa or but we, and denotes 
two considered as distinct from others. When used as a con- 
nective, it is generally used before a couplet of nouns, adjec- 
tives or verbs, for the purpose of intensity; as, "1 have both 
counseled and entreated him to reform." 

7. But may be derived from two different words, which de- 
note different meanings ; as, 

(1) From b ut au, denoting 'without, excepting ; hence it some- 
times has the nature of a preposition. 

(2) From bate, denoting addition, reparation. It has, however, 
acquired a meaning somewhat modified from the original, and 
is used generally before sentences or clauses to denote that an 
opposite sentiment is expressed by it. 

8. Either is derived from oegther, and when it is a conjunc- 
tion it serves to disjoin. When it is used before a couplet uni- 
ted by or it makes the distinction more obvious. 

9. Except is contracted from excepted, and generally denotes 
unless when used as a conjunction. 

10. For is derived from for, and denotes cause or reason. 

11. If is derived from gif the imperative of gifan, and de- 
notes grant or allow. 

12. Lest is derived from tested the perfect participle of lesan, 
which signifies to dismiss. 

13. Neither is derived from ne and either, and denotes not 
either. 

14. Nor is derived from ne and or, and has a negative sense* 

15. Notwithstanding is formed by the English participle and 
not, and denotes not opposing, but it is usually placed before a 
sentence or clause that expresses an opposite or different senti- 
ment. 

16. Or is derived from other, and marks an alternative. 



§§ 200, 201. Syntax — definitions. 135 

17. Since is derived from since, and denotes seeing, or seeing 
that. 

18. Than is from thanne, and is used to introduce the last 
part of a comparison. 

19. Thit is from thart the perfect participle of thran, to talce. 

20. Though is from thofig the imperative of ihqjigan, to allow. 

21. Unless is from unles the imperative of anleson, and means 
except. 

22. Y<e£ is from ge£, the imperative of geton, and means to get, 
but usually placed before a clause that denotes opposition. 

DERIVATION OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Remark. The derivation of interjections in many cases is at- 
tended with so much doubt and obscurity, and a labored exhi- 
bition of their derivation is of so little importance, that the au- 
thor passes the subject, simply referring the student to the sec- 
tion on Interjections. See §§ 189, 190. 



PART III. 

SYNTAX 



<§> 200. Syntax teaches the rules for constructing 
propositions or sentences. 

The construction of sentences depends on agreement, 
relation, position and government. 

The relation of words is their dependence or con- 
nection according to the sense. 

" The position of a word is its place in the sentence." 

The agreement of words is their correspondence, in 
person, number, gender, case or mode. 

Government in grammar, is the power which one part 
of speech has over another to cause it to be of some 
particular person, gender, case or mode. 

PRINCIPLES OF ANALYSIS. 

<§> 201. A proposition or sentence consists of a sub- 
ject and predicate. 



136 § 201—203. Syntax— subject. 

The subject of a proposition is that with respect to 
which something is commanded, supposed, interrogated 
or affirmed ; as, " Go thou" " If he can go." "He 
goes." Here thou and he are the subjects. 

The predicate denotes that which is commanded, 
supposed, interrogated or affirmed with respect to the 
subject ; as, " Know thou ;" " if he know ;" " he 
knows ;" " does he know ?" Here the word know is 
the predicate. 

SUBJECT. 

§ 201. " The subject is either grammatical or logical" 

Rem. 1. The term grammatical, when applied to the subject 
and predicate of a proposition, refers only to their construc- 
tion according to the rules of grammar. 

Rem. 2. The term logical, when applied to the subject and 
predicate of a proposition, refers simply to the entire thought or 
idea expressed by the principal and qualifying terms of the 
proposition. 

$ 202. The grammatical subject is a noun or some- 
thing that supplies its place ; as, " The tree falls." 
" The man is happy." " Who lives virtuously ?" In 
the first proposition tree is the grammatical subject ; in 
the last two, man and icho are the grammatical sub- 
jects. 

<§> 203. The logical subject is the grammatical sub- 
ject with its various modifying terms ; as, " A wise son 
maketh a glad father." In this example, so?i is the 
grammatical subject, and a wise son the logical subject. 
Abstract the noun from the qualifying term, and the 
proposition, "A son maketh a glad father," would by 
no means be universally true. 

Rem. 1. When the logical subject has no modifying terms, 
it is the same as the grammatical. 

Rem. 2. A verb in the infinitive mode, with its modifiers, is 
sometimes used as the grammatical and logical subject ; as, 
" To deceive ajriend is cruel." Here, to deceive is the grammati- 



§ 204—208. Syntax— subject. 137 

cal subject, and to deceive a friend, i. e. the infinitive with its 
qualifying term friend, is the logical subject. 

Hem. 3. Also a sentence is sometimes the grammatical and 
logical subject ; as, " That anything can exist ivithout existing in 
spacers to my mind incomprehensible." Here the simple pro- 
position, thing can exist, is the grammatical subject. The sim- 
ple proposition with its qualifying terms, " That any 

without existing in space" is the logical subject. 

Rem. 4. YVlien the infinitive is the subject of a proposition, 
the simple infinitive is the grammatical subject, and the infini- 
tive with its qualifying terms, the logical subject. 

Rem. 5. When a sentence is the subject of a proposition, the 
simple proposition is the grammatical subject, and the simple 
proposition with its qualifying terms, is the logical subject ; as, 
" That the path of duty is safest, is doubtless true." Here the 
simple proposition, path is, is the grammatical subject ; and the 
whole clause in italics is the logical subject. 

§ 204. " The subject is either simple or compound." 
<§> 205. A simple subject is a single noun or a word 
that supplies its place, either alone or variously modi- 
fied ; as, " The earth is round." " A virtuous man is 
always worthy of trust." 

§ 206. " A compound subject consists of two or 
more simple subjects to which one predicate belongs ;" 
as, " Virtue and happiness are inseparably connected." 

SUBJECT MODIFIED. 

<§> 207. The grammatical subject is modified by 
words that describe, explain, limit, or in any way affect 
its meaning. 

<§> 208. The grammatical subject is modified as fol- 
lows. 

1. By a noun in apposition, used to explain or describe it ; 
as, " Luther, the reformer" " Cicero, the orator" 

2. By a noun sustaining a relation to it expressed by a pre- 
position ; as, " A man of wisdom seldom acts foolishly." 

3. By an adjective, participle and participial adjective ; as, 
"A wise child honoreth his parents." " The tiding principle of 

12* 



138 § 209. Syntax — subject. 

the heart, is selfishness." " A mind never yielding to circum- 
stances, must be powerful." 

4. By a relative pronoun and the clause connected with it ; 
as, " The man who is industrious, seldom comes to want." 

5. By the definite and indefinite articles; as, " The sun is 
bright." " A halo &f glory was around him." The definition 
of the articles show that they modify the words to which they 
belong. 

§ 209. The grammatical subject is modified directly 
or indirectly ; directly, when the modifying terms ex- 
plain, limit or describe the subject; as, "A very dili- 
gent student seldom fails of success." Here very 
modifies directly diligent, and indirectly student. 

Rem. J. Several clauses sometimes modify the same subject 
either directly or indirectly. 

Rem. 2. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case as speci- 
fied above. 

Rem. 3. An adjective modifying a noun may itself be modified 
as follows. 

1. By an adverb; as, "Very much depends on the impres- 
sions of childhood." 

2. By a noun in the objective case ; as, " Many are fond of 
applause" 

3. By a verb in the infinitive mode ; as, " A man of integrity 
is worthy to he trusted" 

Rem. 4. A participle modifying a subject may be modified : 

1. By a noun in the objective case ; as, u Washington having 
freed his country from oppression, resigned his commission." 

2. By an infinitive; as, "A man laboring to withstand the 
enticements of pleasure, will share in the sympathy of the be- 
nevolent." 

3. By an adverb ; as, " Watching diligently the hour of ar- . 
rival, he waits with painful anxiety for his expected friend." 

Rem. 5. An adverb may be modified : 

1. By another adverb ; as, " He acts more openly." 

2. By a noun ; as, " Many do not act agreeably to their pro- 
fessions." 

Rem. 6. The nominative case independent, denoting the per- 
son addressed, and designed to arouse his attention, does not 
appear to form a part either of the subject or predicate of the 
proposition with which it stands connected, but a separate part 



§ 209 — 215. Syntax — predicate. 139 

of the sentence, which may be called the compellative ; as, " My 
lords, this measure will greatly benefit the nation." The com- 
pellative often limits a pronoun in the subject or predicate; as, 
" Come thou to me, my son" " I love thee, O my country" 

PREDICATE. 

<§> 209. The predicate like the subject, is either gram- 
matical or logical. 

§ 210. The grammatical predicate consists of a verb 
alone; as, " Years fly away." 

<§>2JJ. The logical predicate consists of the gram- 
matical predicate with its various modifying terms ; as, 
M Johnson ivas the author of an English Lexicon" 

Remark. If the grammatical predicate has no modifying 
terms, it is the same as the logical predicate. 

$ 212. The predicate, also, like the subject, is either 
simple or compound. 

§ 213. A simple predicate consists of one finite verb ; 
as, " All men must die" " The ocean rolls" 

$ 214. A compound predicate consists of two or 
more simple predicates belonging to the same subject 
or subjects ; as, " Sin vitiates and debases the soul." 
" Virtue exalts and ennobles the mind." 



PREDICATE MODIFIED. 

^ 215. A grammatical predicate is modified as fol- 
lows. 

1. By a noun or pronoun in the objective case ; as, " A pru- 
dent man foreseeth the evil and hideth himself." 

2. By a verb in the infinitive mode ; as, " He desires to learn." 

3. By an adjective which agrees with the subject; as, " Life 
is short." Here short, coming after the verb, gives the proposi- 
tion a different meaning from what would be expressed by it in 
the following arrangement; "Short life is." The adjective 
short modifies both the verb and the noun. So in the proposi- 
tion, " The earth is round" place the adjective round before the 
subject earth, and the proposition becomes a new one. In the 



140 § 217 — 220. Syntax — gram, and logical connection. 

proposition " the round earth is," simply the existence of the 
round earth is affirmed ; but in the proposition, " The earth is 
round" the figure of the earth is specifically affirmed. 

4. By a noun in apposition with the subject when it follows 
an active intransitive, neuter or passive verb ; as, " Victoria 
walks queen of England." Here queen qualifies walks, by ex- 
pressing in what capacity she walks. The propositions, "Vic- 
toria walks queen of England," and, " Victoria the queen of 
England walks" are very different. " God is the author of all 
things." This proposition affirms that all things were created 
by God. But the proposition, " God the author of all things is," 
affirms particularly the existence of God, the author of all 
things. Similar remarks are applicable to the proposition, 
" The child was called John" 

5. By adverbs ; as, " Newton pursued his investigations pa- 
tiently" " Death often comes suddenly" 

Remark. The terms that modify the predicate may also be 
modified according to the rules given for the modification of 
the subject. 

GRAMMATICAL AND LOGICAL CONNECTION. 

<§> 217. Words and propositions are connected either 
grammatically or logically. 

§ 218. Grammatical connection is that which is ex- 
pressed by conjunctions between verbs, nouns, pro- 
nouns, adjectives and adverbs, which are in the same 
construction. 

§ 219. The logical connection is that which exists 
between the ideas denoted by two or more propositions, 
the terms of which may be wholly or partially expressed. 

Remark. The logical connection refers not only to that which . 
exists between propositions of like regimen, but to all that are 
expressed by connective particles whether the construction of 
propositions be like or unlike. 

<§> 220. The grammatical connection may be illus- 
trated as follows : 

1. Bv the connection of two or more verbs of like modes and 
tenses, having but one subject; as, "Vice vitiates and debases 
the mind." This is the grammatical connection. The follow- 



§§ 221 — 226. Syntax — sentences. 141 

ing is the logical connection : Vice vitiates the mind, and vice de- 
bases the mind, 

2. By two or more nouns which are the subjects of one verb ; 
as, "Anxiety and care weary the mind." And here connects, 
grammatically, care and anxiety ; but logically, the two proposi- 
tions, care wearies the mind, and anxiety wearies the mind. 

3. By two or more nouns or pronouns which are the objects 
of an active-transitive verb ; as, "I saw James and John study- 
ing." Here and connects James and John grammatically ; but 
logically, the two propositions, / saw James studying, and / saw 
John studying. 

4. By two or more adjectives belonging to the same noun ; 
as, " Howard was a generous and philanthropic man." Here 
and connects generous and philanthropic grammatically ; but logi- 
cally, the two propositions, Howard was a generous man, and 
Howard was a philanthropic man. 

5. By two or more adverbs qualifying the same verb ; as, 
"The trial was conducted nobly and justly." Here and con- 
nects, grammatically, nobly and justly ; but logically, the two 
propositions, the trial was conducted nobly, and the trial was con- 
ductedjustly. 

Remark. The logical connection requires the whole propo- 
sition to be repeated as many times as there are verbs, nouns, 
adjectives or adverbs of like construction in the same sentence. 

SENTENCES. 

<§> 221. " A sentence consists of one proposition, or 
two or more united." 

<§> 222. A simple sentence consists of only one propo- 
sition ; as, " John spells." 

$ 223. A compound sentence consists of two or 
more propositions ; as, 6 - James studies, and Edward 
labors." 

§ 224. " The propositions of which a compound sen- 
tence consists, are called clauses or members." 

§ 225. " The members of a compound sentence are 
either dependent or independent." 

§ 226. A clause is independent when it makes com- 
plete sense by itself; dependent when its sense is com- 
plete only in connection with another clause ; as, "Vir- 



142 •§§ 227, 228. Syntax— sentences. 

tue will triumph, though she sometimes yields to vice." 
Here the former clause is independent ; the latter de- 
pendent. 

§ 227. " That member of a compound sentence on 
which the other members depend, is the leading clause ; 
its subject, the leading subject ; and its verb, the lead- 
ing verb." 

§ 228. The leading verb is either in the indicative 
or imperative mode. 

EXERCISES IN ANALYSING. 

1. "The poor mariner contemplated the horrors of his situa- 
tion with a look of absolute despair." 

This is a simple and independent sentence. The logical 
subject is, The poor mariner. The logical predicate is, contem- 
plated the horrors of his situation with a look of absolute despair. 
The grammatical subject is mariner. 1 This is modified by the 2 
and poor. 3 The grammatical predicate is contemplated. 4 This 
is modified by horrors and by with and looh Horrors is modi- 
fied by the and by of situation. 5 Look is modified by a and by 
of despair. Situation is modified by his ; and despair by absolute. 

2. " Sylla having departed to combat the public enemy, Ma- 
rius reentered Italy ; where, forming an army of many thousands 
of discontented and factious persons, he placed himself at their 
head and marched directly for Rome." — Greene's Hist. Italy. 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of three clauses, 
into which it may be resolved thus: 

(1) Marius reentered Italy, which is the leading clause. 

(2) Sylla having departed to combat the public enemy. 

(3) Where, forming an army of many thousands of discon- 
tented and factious persons, he placed himself at their head and 
marched directly for Rome. 

In the preceding clauses, the logical predicates have been 
italicised. 

In the 1st clause, Marius is both the grammatical and logical 
subject. The grammatical predicate is reentered, which is modi- 
fied by Italy 6 

The 2nd clause contains a nominative case absolute. It is 

1 § 202. 3 § 208, 3. 5 § 215, R. and 208,2. 

2 § 208,5. ^ | 210. 6 § 215,1. 



Syntax — questions. 143 

attached 1 to the leading clause 2 without any connective, and in 
order to denote the time ivhen Marius reentered Italy. Though 
it does not express a direct affirmation, it is properly a distinct 
clause of itself, and is equivalent to the clause when Sylla had 
departed to combat the public enemy. Sylla is the grammatical 
subject. Having departed is the grammatical predicate, and is 
modified by to combat? which is modified by enemy. Enemy _ is 
modified by the and public. 

The 3rd clause is connected to the leading clause by the con- 
nective adverb where, 4 which relates to Italy, and modifies 
forming, placed and marched, by denoting the place in which 
these several actions were performed. The grammatical sub- 
ject is he, i. e Marius, which is modified by forming, and this by 
army ; the latter by an and of thousands, and thousands by many 
and of persons ; and this, again, by discontented and factious, 
which are connected by and. Placed and marched are the gram- 
matical predicate, which is compound. 5 Placed is modified by 
himself and at head ; head by their. Marched is modified by di- 
rectly and for Rome ; and connects placed and marched. 

Questions — First Course. 

What does syntax teach ? Upon what does the construction 
of a sentence depend ? What, is meant by "the relation of 
words " ? What is meant by the position of a word ? What is 
understood by agreement of words ? What is meant by the 
term government in grammar? What is a proposition^ Define 
the subject of a proposition. Predicate. How is the subject di- 
vided ? What is a gi*ammatical subject ? Logical * What fur- 
ther division of the subject is made ? What is a simple sub- 
ject ? Compound ? How is the grammatical subject modified ? 
Mention the five ways in which a grammatical subject is modi- 
fied ? How else is the grammatical subject modified? How 
is the predicate divided ? What is the grammatical predicate ? 
The logical ? What other division of the predicate is made ? 
What is a simple predicate ? A compound ? How is the gram- 
matical predicate modified ? Mention the five methods. How 
are words connected ? What is grammatical connection ? Log- 
ical connection ? Repeat the six different ways in which the 
grammatical connection may be illustrated ? What is a sen- 
tence ? What is a simple sentence ? A compound sentence ? 

1 § 227. 2 § 226. 3 § 208, R. 4, 2. 4 § 177. 5 § 214. 6 § 215,5. 



144 § 229. Syntax — rules. 

What are the propositions called which make up a compound 
sentence ? How are the members divided ? When is a clause 
independent ? When dependent ? What is the leading clause ? 
In what mode is the leading verb ? 

Questions — Second Course. 

To what does the term grammatical refer ? To what does 
the logical subject refer ? Is a verb in the infinitive mode 
sometimes used as a grammatical or logical subject ? Is a whole 
sentence ever used thus? When the infinitive is the subject of 
a proposition, which is the grammatical, and which the logical 
part ? When a sentence is the subject, which is the gram- 
matical, and which the logical part ? May several clauses modi- 
fy the same subject ? Mention the three ways in which an ad- 
jective, modifying a noun, may itself be modified ? Mention 
the three methods in which a participle, modifying a subject, 
may be modified ? How may an adverb be modified ? Can 
the grammatical predicate be modified ? How T may the terms 
that modify the predicate, be modified ? To what does the 
logical connection refer ? How many times does a logical con- 
nection require a sentence to be repeated ? 

RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Rule I. 

<§> 229. The definite article belongs to nouns of the 
singular or plural number ; as, " The bird sings." 
" The birds sing." 

Rem. 1. When the definite article is prefixed to an adjective 
without a noun expressed, the adjective sometimes acquires tfifc 
meaning of a noun, and should be parsed as such ; as, " The 
very frame of spirit proper for being diverted with the laugha- 
ble in objects, is so different from that which is necessary for ' 
philosophizing on them." — Camp. Rhet. 

Rem. 2. In many cases, when the article comes before an ad- 
jective without a noun expressed, it belongs to some noun im- 
plied ; as, " The animal (world,) and vegetable world." " The 
man of firm purpose and decision of character turns neither to 
the right (h::nd) nor left (hand) in the career of duty.] 5 " He 
was a good (man) and a just man. 

Rem. 3. The definite article is sometimes prefixed to adjec- 



§ 229. Syntax — rules. 145 

lives or adverbs of the comparative or superlative degree, to 
make the expression more intensive ; as, "The farther they 
proceeded, the greater appeared their alacrity." — Dr. Johnson. 
" James walked the fastest of the whole company." 

Rem. 4. The article the sometimes supplies the place of a 
possessive pronoun ; as, " Men who have not bowed the (their) 
knee to Baal." — Bible. "He looks him full in the face;" i. e. 
his face. 

Rem. 5. The article should not be prefixed to proper nouns, 
unless they are plural and denote a collection of individuals ; 
as, " The United States ;" or to nouns of virtue, vice, passion, 
art or science, nor before nouns whose meaning is sufficiently 
known without them. 

Rem. 6. When an adjective is put after the noun on account 
of any clause depending upon it, the same article is repeated ; 
as, " They are not the men in the nation the most difficult to 
be replaced." 

Rem. 7. " When an adjective immediately precedes a noun, 
the article is prefixed to the adjective, that its power may ex- 
tend over that also ;" as, 



;i The private path, the secret acts of men 
If noble, far the noblest of their lives." 



The exceptions to this rule are such adjectives as, all, many, 
both, such, what, and such as a e preceded by the adverbs, toa, 
as, so, how, or the sensible properties of matter ; as, hard, soft, 
etc. ; as, " Ml the people ran to the former." " Like many an 
other poor wretch, I now suffer all the ill consequences of so 
foolish an indulgence." 

Rem. 8. If the adjective comes after the noun, the article 
usually precedes the noun ; as, " A man improvident of the fu- 
ture." " Julian the apostate." 

Rem. 9. When nouns are closely connected in construction, 
the article is generally prefixed to only one of them ; as, " The 
waves and winds were terrific." 

Rem. 10. When nouns are not closely connected in construc- 
tion, the article should be repeated before each noun ; as, "The 
keen discerner of character, does not base his opinion upon the 
act of a moment, but the general tenor of a man's conduct." 
It would be improper to omit the article before the word gen- 
eral. 

Rem. 11. When it is desirable to express a number of nouns 
in succession with uncommon emphasis, the article is placed 

13 



146 § 229. Syntax— rules. 

before each of them ; as, " I cannot specify the day, the hour 
and the minute when my friend arrived." 

Rem. 12. The is sometimes prefixed to the relative which in 
the sacred Scriptures, to render it more emphatic ; as, " In the 
which ye also walked sometime, when ye lived in them." Colh 
3: 7. " 

Rem. 13. If adjectives that are connected describe things in- 
dividually different, but expressed by the same term, the arti- 
cle should be repeated before all of them, because the repeti- 
tion of the article implies the repetition of the noun ; as, " The 
white and the black sheep." 

Rem. 14. If the adjectives that are connected, describe the 
same thing or things, the article should not be repeated, be- 
cause where the article is not repeated, the adjectives belong 
to the same nouns ; as, " The high and mighty states." Here 
the word high and mighty belong to states. (The above two re- 
marks are equally applicable to the indefinite articles.) 

Rem. 15. The is often prefixed to the indefinite pronouns 
one and other, and their plurals; as, "He would take neither 
the one nor the other." " See the great ones of the earth." " I 
am not aware what the others did at that time." 

Rem. 16. When persons are addressed, the article is gener- 
ally omitted before their titles ; as, " Master, will you ex- 
plain to me this problem ?" 

Rem. 17. Sometimes participial nouns take the definite arti- 
cle before them ; as, " In the doing of right, there is great re- 
ward." The participial noun occurs very often, however, with- 
out the article. Articles should never be prefixed to pure par- 
ticiples. 

Position. 
Rem. 18. The definite article precedes the noun. 

False Syntax — First Course. 

Fire, air, earth and water are four elements of philosophers. 
Reason why 1 did this, is evident. We have within us, an in- 
telligent principle, distinct from body and from matter. Be- 
ware of drunkenness ; it impairs understanding, wastes es- 
tate, destroys reputation, consumes a body, and renders the 
man of brightest parts a common pest of a meanest clown. 

False Syntax — Second Course. 
God will reward the righteous men, but he will punish the 



§ £30. Syntax — rules. 147 

wicked men. The weather was hot and cold weather alter- 
nately. He was strongest in power. He looks him directly in 
his eye. The vice and the immorality are concomitant. He, 
of all the company, was most difficult to curb. Great skill dis- 
played, and calm presence of mind during the contest, elicited 
just praise of his commander. The Franklin, philosopher. The 
violet, the indigo, the blue, the green, the yellow, the orange, 
the red are seven colors of rainbow. There are some evils of 
life, which equally affect prince and people. Time, place 
and occasion were specified particularly. In which I will ap- 
pear unto thee. Halt, maimed, lame an/I blind came to him to 
be healed. The great and the good and the wise men of every 
nation suffered. He assisted one, but spurned the other. The 
Mr. Langdon, will you lend me a dollar ? Conflagration fol- 
lowed taking of the city. The wisest men, and the best men 
sometimes commit error. It matters but little whether you 
take this course or that course of action. Lady, unconscious of 
her powers, sang sweetly. Excellent traits of his character 
were fully appreciated. I think this is best course you 
could take. He is stronger of the two, but not wiser. The 
anger and the hatred should be avoided. He was wounded in 
his foot The Supreme Being is wisest, most powerful and 
best of beings. The lightnings and the thunder, and the roar of 
the ocean and the flapping of the sails, and the screams of the 
women, were enough to appal the strongest heart In slaugh- 
tering of women and children the savages seemed to take the 
greatest delight. He continued walking up the avenue, and 
down the avenue. Can you describe to me, origin, purpose, 
object, progress and result of that enterprise ? Young, old, 
gay, sad, infirm and strong came to see him. He followed the 
wise and the judicious advice of his friend. The Miss Good- 
win, will you accept this sandwich ? 

Rule H. 

<§> 230. The indefinite article belongs to nouns of the 
singular number only ; as, a hill ; a house ; an hour ; 
an apple. 

Rem. 1. The indefinite article sometimes supplies the place 
of each or evei-y ; as, " Pears cost twelve cents a dozen ;" that 
is, every dozen, or each dozen. 

Rem. 2. If in making a comparison, the nouns' compared de- 
note the same person or thing, the indefinite article should not 



148 §230. Syntax— rules. 

be inserted before the latter ; but if they denote a different 
person or thing, the indefinite article should be prefixed to both 
nouns ; as, " He would make a better soldier than scholar" Here, 
both nouns denote the same person. Insert the indefinite arti- 
cle before the latter noun, and the meaning is very much 
changed ; as, " He would make a better soldier than a scholar" 
Here a comparison is made between the words soldier and 
scholar which denote different persons. The proposition de- 
notes that he the subject, has qualities that fit him better for a 
soldier, than a man of science has. 

Rem. 3. Sometimes the insertion of the indefinite article 
gives a positive meaning to a proposition, and the omission of it, 
a negative meaning; as, " James had a little respect for his as- 
sociates." Here a positive meaning is asserted. " James had 
little respect for his associates." Here is a negative meaning 
expressed. 

Rem. 4. The indefinite article a is used before plural nouns 
preceded by few or many ; as, " a few days ;" " a great many 
persons." — Dr. Webster. 

Rem. 5. A is used before some collective w r ords, when they 
belong to plural nouns ; as, ■ a thousand dollars ;" " a hundred 
years." Here, as in the preceding remark, the article modifies 
the sense of the adjective. 

Rem. 6. When many is preceded by the article a the adjec- 
tive great comes between them ; as, " a great many men." 

Rem. 7. The adjective many denoting plurality belongs to a 
singular noun when the article a comes between them ; as, 

" Full many a gem of purest ray serene." 

" Where many a rose-bud rears its blushing head." 

Rem. 8. "The following examples illustrate the peculiar 
delicacy there is in the insertion or omission of the indefinite 
article. ' I do not intend to turn critic on this occasion ;' not a 
critic. On the contrary, we properly insert the article in the 
following sentence ; 'I do not intend to become a critic in this 
business ;' not, to become critic. It is not incorrect to say with 
the article, 'He is in a great hurry;' but not, 'in great hurry.' 
And yet in this expression, 'He is in great haste,' the article 
should be omitted ; it would be improper to say, ' He is in a 
great haste.' A nice discernment, and accurate attention to the 
best usage, are necessary to direct us on these occasions." — 
Murray. 

Rem. 9. The article a is prefixed to participial and other 



Syntax— questions. 149 

nouns, and expresses the relation of the prepositions about, at, in, 
on, of, to ; as, "He is a going soon." " He went a fishing." 

Position. 

Rem. 10. The indefinite article a or an always precedes the 
noun to which it belongs. 

False Syntax — First Course. 

A five hundred horses composed his cavalry. An eagles 
were seen yesterday. An apples are ripe. A farmers were 
ploughing. A five days of fail* weather brought them into har- 
bor. 

False Syntax — Second Course. 

You would make a better merchant than a farmer. He is 
no better than rascal. Few days' reprieve we grant to him 
through the clemency of the governor. Great many individuals 
were crushed to death. He gave thousand dollars for the house. 
That state will not exist hundred years hence. Million of peo- 
ple rose up in arms. A many man came to see him. A many 
boy looked on with delight. He is in great hurry. What hur- 
ry he was in ! He went in a great haste. 

QUESTIONS ON THE ARTICLES. 

First Course. 
What is rule first ? Repeat rule second. 

Second Course. 

When does an adjective acquire the meaning of a noun ? 
Give instances where articles, coming before adjectives, belong 
to nouns implied. Why is the definite article sometimes pre- 
fixed to adjectives or adverbs in the comparative and superla- 
tive degree ? Does the article the ever supply the place of a 
possessive pronoun ? Before what nouns should the article the 
not be prefixed ? When is the same article repeated ? When 
an adjective precedes a noun, why is the article prefixed to it ? 
If the adjective comes after the noun, where is the article ? 
Where nouns are closely allied in construction, is the article 
prefixed to each ? When they are not closely connected, 

13* 



150 § 231. Syntax — rules. 

should the article be prefixed to each ? Under what circum- 
stances may the article be repeated before a number of nouus 
in succession ? Why is the sometimes prefixed to the relative 
which ? Why should the article be prefixed to adjectives that 
are connected, describing things individually different, but ex- 
pressed by the same common term ? If the adjectives describe 
the same thing, why should not the adjective be repeated ? Give 
instances where the is prefixed to the indefinite pronouns one 
and other. Are articles ever prefixed to participial nouns? 
When persons are addressed, is the article prefixed to their ti- 
tles ? What is the position of the definite article ? What part 
of speech sometimes supplies the place of each or every ? Give 
the substance of Rem. 2, § 230. Does the insertion of the in- 
definite article ever give a positive meaning to a proposition ? 
State an instance where the omission of it gives a negative 
meaning. Before plural nouns, preceded by few or many, what 
article is used ? What article is used before some collective 
words ? When many is preceded by the article a, what word 
comes between them ? Give instances illustrating the peculiar 
delicacy of the insertion or omission of the article a. What 
prepositions is the article a prefixed to participial nouns to ex- 
press the relation of? What is the position of the indefinite 
article a or an? 

Rule IIL 

$ 231. A noun or pronoun which is the subject of 
a verb, must be in the nominative case ; as, " Then 
said Agrippa unto Paul, almost thou persuadest me to 
be a Christian." Acts 16: 28. 

Rem. L Every subject-nominative except the case absolute, 
and when the noun or pronoun represents a person or thing ad- 
dressed, belongs to some verb expressed or implied, 

Rem. 2. " In poetry the subject-nominative is often omitted in 
interrogative sentences, in such cases where in prose the omis- 
sion would be improper ;" as, 

• Lives there who loves pain :" — Milton. 

That is, " Lives there a man who loves pain ?" 

Rem. 3. The subject-nominative is often omitted after the 
conjunctions than, as and but; as, "He felt himself addicted to 
philosophical speculations, with more ardor than consisted with 
the duties of a Roman senator." — Murphtfs Tacitus. Here the 



§ 231. Syntax — rules. 151 

ellipsis should be supplied by that which, " Not that anything 
in consequence of our late loss, more afflictive than was to be 
expected." — Life of Cowper. Here that which supplies the ellip- 
sis after than. 

Rem. 4. In the answer to a question, the whole sentence is 
usually understood, except the noun which is the principal sub- 
ject of the interrogation ; as, " Who discovered the law of 
gravitation ? Newton" 

Rem. 5. The personal pronoun me is sometimes the subject 
of a verb, and the verb has the form of the third person singu- 
lar ; as, methinks, methought. 

Rem. 6. The nominative is sometimes introduced without the 
verb, when the train of thought is suddenly interrupted ; as, 
" The name of a procession, what a great mixture of ideas, per- 
sons, habits, tapers, motions, sounds does it contain!" — Locke. 

Position. 

Rem. 7. The position of the subject-nominative may be gene- 
rally ascertained by the following rules. 

1. In declaratory propositions, the nominative precedes the 
verb; as, "In the beginning God created the heavens and the 
earth." Gen. 1:1. " And ye will not come to me that ye might 
have life." John 5: 40. " Peace dawned upon his mind." — John- 
son. " The moral law is a rule of right." 

2. The nominative may be separated from the verb by one 
or more words or one or more propositions ; as, " The ways of 
wisdom are pleasant." " Liberty, say the fanatics, favorers of 
popular power, can only be found in a democracy." — Anach. 
ch. 62. 

Rem. 8. The subject-nominative in the following cases, is 
placed after the verb, or the first auxiliaries : 

1 . When the verb is in the imperative mode ; as, " Depart 
thou." 

2. When a supposition is made without the conditional con- 
junction ; as, " Did he but know my anxiety." Had i* but 
known their plans." 

3. When the pronouns ivhose, his, hers, mine, their, your, etc 
are placed before the verb with the governing word ; as, " From 
whose labors has resulted no important benefit." 

4. When a strong desire or feeling is expressed ; as, Oh ! 
may / not share in your smiles !" " What can / do ?" 

Rem. 5. When a question is asked, which does not begin 



152 §232. Syntax— rules. 

with an interrogative pronoun in the nominative case ; as, 
" Why will ye die ?" " Is he able to accomplish it ?" 

6. Often when a neuter verb is used ; as, " On a sudden ap- 
peared the king" 

7. When an emphatical adjective introduces a sentence ; as, 
"Happy is the man whose heart does not reproach him." 

8. When a sentence depends on neither or nor, so as to be 
coupled with another sentence ; as, " Ye shall not eat of it, 
neither shall ye touch it, lest ye die." 

9. Generally, when the verb is preceded by here, there, hence, 
thence, then, thus, neither, nor, such, so, yet, the-mme, herein, therein, 
and wherein. 

"There is a. stream whose gentle flow 
Supplies the city of our God." 

" So panteth my soul after thee, oh Lord !" Ps. xlii. " Neither 
has this man sinned." " Herein is my Father glorified, that ye 
bear much fruit." John 15: 8. " Make me to go in the path of 
thy commandments ; for therein do J delight." Ps. 119: 35. 

10. When a dialogue is introduced by the verbs say, answer, 
or reply, think, and the like ; as, " I shall not go to the city, 
said he." 

False Syntax. 

Him that pursues the path of virtue, will be safe. Whom 
shall be found a faithful friend ? Thou whom we love dearly, 
will be long in our memoiy. Whom are less than the least 
of all saints. Us who have toiled in seed-time, shall reap a rich 
harvest. Whom dost thou suppose was present? I can parse 
as well as them. James and we are going to town. Whom 
tore that book ? Me. 

Rule IV. 

<§> 232. A noun or pronoun joined with a participle 
and governing no verb, is put in the nominative case 
absolute to denote the time, cause or concomitant of an 
action, or the state or condition on which it depends ; 
as, " Jesus had conveyed himself away, a multitude be- 
ing in that place. " John 5: 13. " Tarquinius reign- 
ing, Pythagoras came into Italy." — Cicero. Here the 
nominative absolute denotes time. " Hunger inciting, 



§ 232. Syntax — rules. 153 

the wolves seek the fold." — Ovid. Here cause is de- 
noted. " He failing, who shall meet success?" 

Rem. L The nominative case absolute is an abridged form 
of expression, and may be resolved in a proposition, by making 
the noun or pronoun the subject, and the participle the predi- 
cate ; as, When Tarquinius ivas reigning Pythagoras came into 
Italy. Because of pressing hunger the wolf seeks the fold. If 
he fails, who will meet with success ? Thus the examples un- 
der the above rule are resolved. 

Rem. 2. When the nominative absolute is thus resolved into 
a proposition, the proposition is usually commenced with when, 
because, if since ; as, / being a youth ; wlien I was a youth. 

Rem. 3. A noun may be put in the nominative absolute with 
either the present, perfect or compound perfect participles ; as, 
" Pride prevailing, man becomes a slave to fancy." " This said, 
he formed thee — Adam." " An extra session of Congress having 
been called, each member repaired to the Capitol. 

Rem. 4. Sometimes an indefinite noun or pronoun is under- 
stood before a participle with which it is put in the nominative 
case absolute ; as, " It is not possible to act otherwise, consider- 
ing the weakness of our nature." Here considering agrees with 
some noun or pronoun according to the sense ; as, "J, thou, he, 
she, we, you, they, person or persons considering," etc. "Generally 
speaking, his manners are agreeable." 

Rem. 5. The participle being is often implied after nouns or 
pronouns in the nominative case absolute ; as, 

" Alike in ignorance, his reason (being) such, 
Whether he thinks too little, or too much." — Pope. 

False Syntax. 
Me delighting in the pleasures of youth, no cares or anxie- 
ties disturb me. Thee being absent. The prosecution of your 
business was suspended. Him having dismissed his audience, 
returned home fatigued by his efforts. Them having fulfilled 
their contract, the lord can have no claim upon them. 

But him, the chieftain of them all, 
His sword hangs rusting on the wall. 

Her quiet relapsing to her former state, 
With boding fears, approach the serving train. 

These all thy gifts and graces we display, 
Thee, only thee, directing all the way. 



154 §§ 233, 234. Syntax— rules. 

Rule V. 
§ 233. When an address is made, the person or 
thing addressed is put in the nominative case absolute ; 
as, " O ! virtue, how amiable thou art !" " O ! beauti- 
ful boy !" " O lovely land of my birth !" 

Rem. 1. Nouns or pronouns addressed are always either in 
the second person, singular or plural. A noun is always in the 
third person when preceded by an article. 

Rem. 2. Nouns are sometimes expressed in exclamations, 
and in short phrases, to exhibit more force and vivacity. In 
such cases, however, they depend on some word or words un- 
derstood, and are not put in the case absolute ; as, 

"To arms! They come ! The Greek! The Greek!"— Halleck. 

Here Greek is the subject of the verb comes understood. 

" Alas ! the lofty city! and alas ! 

The trebly hundred triumphs! and the day 
When Brutus made the dagger's edge surpass 
The conqueror's sword in bearing fame away !" 

Childe Harold j Canto 4, Stanza 82. 

False Syntax. 

Oh happy us ! surrounded thus with blessings ! Thee, too! 
Brutus, my son ! cried Caesar, overcome. Oh thrice thee, hav- 
ing escaped from the hand of thy pursuers ! 

Rule VI. 

<§> 234. A noun or pronoun annexed to another noun 
or pronoun denoting the same person or thing, is put 
by apposition in the same case ; as, " Cicero, the ora- 
tor." " Milton, the poet." " We, the consuls." " I 
myself, cannot subscribe to your sentiments." 

Rem. 1. A noun in apposition with a preceding noun, is 
used to explain or describe it. 

Rem. 2. The pronouns of the first, and second persons are 
sometimes prefixed to nouns, to designate their person ; as, " I 
John saw these things." — Bible. 

" Blow ye wild winds of winter, blow.!" 
" Ye hypocrites, ye generation of vipers." ' ; His praise, ye 
brooks attune." — Thompson. In such constructions the noun 
is usually parsed as in apposition with the pronoun. 



§ 234. Syntax — rules. 155 

Rem. 3. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sen- 
tence ; as, " Let him reflect that an orator is training — a diffi- 
cult thing? Quinct. " He has always counseled me as a father 
— a kindness which I cannot easily forget. 

Rem. 4. The explanatory term sometimes differs from the 
principal term, i. e. the noun explained, in gender ; as, " They 
have forgotten me, — the fountain of living waters," etc. " The 
Scipios, — two thunderbolts in war." 

Rem. 5. Sometimes the explanatory term differs from the 
principal term in number, and occasionally in both number 
and person. 

Rem. 6. Sometimes the explanatory noun is connected to 
the other by a conjunction. 

Rem. 7. A noun or pronoun in apposition with two or 
more nouns is generally put in the plural ; as, " The produc- 
tions of Demosthenes and Cicero, the most distinguished ora- 
tors of antiquity, are read with lively interest by every classical 
scholar." 

Rem. 8. Sometimes the former noun or pronoun denotes a 
whole, and its parts are expressed by nouns or pronouns in 
apposition with it ; as, " The whole company, gentlemen, ladies 
and servants, were in the highest spirits. 

" And to their boat (they) returning each 
With thoughtful brows and haste, 
And o'ercharged breasts too full for speech, 
Left 'midst the frozen waste, 
That charnel ship, which } ears before 
Had sailed from distant Albion's shore. 

QUESTIONS ON THE NOMINATIVE CASE OF NOUNS. 

Questions — First Course. 
Repeat rule 3rd. 4th. 5th. 6th. 

Questions — Second Course. 
Does every subject-nominative belong to some verb ex- 
pressed or implied ? May the subject-nominative often be 
omitted in poetry, where the omission would be improper in 
prose ? Give an instance. Give an example where the sub- 
ject-nominative is omitted after the comparative than. Is the 
pronoun me ever the subject of a verb ? When is the nomin- 
ative introduced without the verb ? What two rules determine 
the position of the subject-nominative ? Repeat the ten cases 
where the subject-nominative may come after the verb. How 



156 § 235. Syntax — rules. 

may the nominative case absolute be resolved ? When the 
nominative absolute is thus resolved, how is the proposition 
usually commenced ? With what participles may a noun be 
put in the case absolute ? What is sometimes understood be- 
fore the participles ? Where is the participle being often im- 
plied? In what person are nouns or pronouns when addres- 
sed ? For what purpose are nouns sometimes expressed in 
exclamation, and short phrases ? On what do they then de- 
pend ? and in what case are they put ? What does a noun 
in apposition with another noun denote ? What pronouns 
are sometimes prefixed to nouns to designate their person ? 
Give instances where nouns are put in apposition with sen- 
tences ? In what does the explanatory term sometimes dif- 
fer from the principal term ? Does it ever differ in number or 
person ? Give instances. In what number is a noun that is 
in apposition with two or more nouns ? Explain Rem. 7, § 234, 
with the examples. 

Rule VII. 

§ 235. Adjectives belong to nouns or pronouns 
which they describe, expressed or implied ; as, " A 
good man." "A rich field." 

Rem. 1. This rule is applicable to definite, indefinite, distri- 
butive and participial adjectives. 

Rem. 2. An adjective is often used alone, the noun with 
which it agrees, being understood ; as, "The Honorable (body), 
the Legislature dissolved." "The pride of swains Palemon was, 
the generous (man) and the rich (man)." " The nine {Muses)" 
" Philip was one of the seven (deacons)." 

Rem. 3. When an adjective describes persons or things with 
sufficient clearness without a noun to which it strictly belongs, 
it may be construed as a noun ; as, " Associate with the wise 
and the good." " The future will resemble the past." " Such 
is the opinion of the learned." " The just shall live by faith." 
"If the righteous scarcely be saved where shall the ungodly 
and sinner appear ?" 1 Peter 4: 18. " Many are called but Jew 
chosen." 

Rem. 4. Adjectives sometimes belong to a verb in the infini- 
tive mode, or a participle used as a noun, and also to whole 
propositions or sentences ; as, " To err is human." " To treat 
with contempt the cries of the needy is wicked." " Agreeable to 
this, we read of names being blotted out of God's book." " I was 



§ 235. Syntax — rules. 157 

not aware of his being able to do it." " Her majesty signified 
her pleasure to the admiral, that as soon as we had left a squad- 
ron for Dunkirk agreeable to what he had proposed, he should 
proceed with the fleet." 

Rem. 5. When the infinitive mode, to which the adjective 
belongs, has qualifying terms connected with it, the adjective 
should be construed as belonging grammatically to the verb 
only in the same manner as it would agree with a common 
noun having qualifying"T;erms. Hence ivicked in one of the 
above examples belongs, grammatically, to the verb to treat, al- 
though, logically, it belongs to the verb with its modifying 
terms with contempt 

Rem. 6. When an adjective agrees with a proposition having 
qualifying terms, it belongs, grammatically, only to the simple 
proposition itself. In one of the examples above, agreeable be- 
longs to we read, grammatically, but logically, to the proposi- 
tion with its modifying terms. 

Rem. 7. When a comparison is made between two objects or 
two classes of objects, or one object and all the others of the 
same class, the comparative degree is used ; as, " The pine tree 
is taller than the maple." " Because* the foolishness of God is 
wiser than men, and the weakness of God is stronger than men," 
1 Cor. 1: 25. "For the children of this world are in their gen- 
eration wiser than the children of light." Luke 16: 8. " Thou, 
through thy commandments, hast made me iviser than my ene- 
mies," Psalms 119: 98. 

Rem. 8. In the use of the comparative degree, the latter term 
should never include, the former, although this is sometimes 
done ; as, " For he (Solomon) was wiser than all men," yet pre- 
cision requires that other should be expressed before men ; as, 
" For he (Solomon) was wiser than all other men." 

Rem. 9. When a comparison is made between one or more 
objects and all others of the same class or not, the superlative 
may be used ; as, " God is the greatest of all beings." " An 
elephant is the largest of all animals." 

Rem. 10. When the superlative is used, the latter term should 
always include the former ; as, " The evil ©f sin is the greatest 
of all evils." It would be improper to say "of all other evils." 

Rem. 11. " When several adjectives, each independently of 
the other qualify a noun," they are connected by a conjunction 
expressed or implied, whether they precede or follow it ; as, 

14 



158 § 236* Syntax— rules. 

"He made an eloquent, profound and instructive speech." "His 
manner was elegant, attractive, forcible and impressive" 

Rem. 12. When two adjectives precede a noun, the latter of 
which forms with it a complex idea, they are not connected by a 
conjunction, but the former belongs to the latter adjective and 
the noun forming a complex idea. But if more than two ad- 
jectives precede a noun of the above construction, all may be 
connected by conjunctions expressed ot implied except the last 
two ; as, " He was a manly, intelligent and discreet young man." 

Rem. 13. Adjectives are sometimes used adverbially ; as, 

fr ' Drink deep (deeply) or taste not the Pierian spring'." — Pope. 
"He opened wide (widely) her everlasting gates." — Milton. 

" Let us write slow (sloivly) and exact (exactly)" 

Rem. 14. In poetry, this method of using the adjective may 
sometimes be an excellence, but in prose it is not generally 
allowable. 

Rem. 15. When an adjective placed after the verb in the 
predicate, belongs to the subject of the proposition, it not only 
describes the subject, but qualifies the verb that immediately 
precedes it ; as, " The earth is round" " The sun is the largest 
of the heavenly bodies." See § 215. 3. 

Rem. 16. The terms used to distinguish persons should be 
parsed as adjectives ; as, " Sir Isaac Newton." " Sir John Moore." 
" Doctor Benjamin Rush." These terms may be called proper 
adjectives. 

Rem. 17. When an adjective comes after the verb and forms 
a part of the predicate of a proposition, it modifies both the 
verb and the subject ; as, " The earth is round" See § 215. 

Rem. 18. When one adjective is annexed to another not to 
express an additional idea, but the idea of the first more forci- 
bly, the conjunction is usually omitted. 

False Syntax. 

■ Washington was a greater general than all. He was more 
philosophical than all men. Intemperance and slavery are the 
two greatest calamities of all other evils in our country. The 
lion is the most savage of all other animals. His person was 
tall, and well proportioned, and elegant, and capable of great 
endurance. 

Rule VIII. 

§ 236. Definite and numeral adjectives denoting 



§237. Syntax — rules. 159 

onity or plurality, agree with the nouns which they de- 
scribe, in number ; as, " This man ;" " these men." 
" That tree ; » those trees." 

Remark. Sometimes a numeral adjective denoting plurality, 
belongs to a noun in the singular ; as, " Twenty head of cattle." 
M A hundred penny-worth of bread." " Twenty sail of the line," 

§ 237. Position. 

Rem. ]. The following rules may assist the learner to ascer- 
tain the proper position of adjectives. 

1. Adjectives are generally placed before nouns ; as, "A no- 
ble man." 

Rem. 2. In the following cases the adjective is put after the 
noun or pronoun to which it belongs. 

1. When adjectives belong to pronouns ; as, " Will you leave 
me hopeless" 

2. When an adjective becomes a title, or is applied to a 
noun ; as, " Alexander the Great" " George the Fourth." 

3. When one or more words depend upon the adjectives ; as, 
" A man generous to his enemies." " A youth susceptible of im- 
provement." 

4. " When the quality results from the action of the verb ;" 
as, " Vice makes life miserable." 

5. When a verb occurs between the adjective and noun ; as, 
* War is expensive" 

6. When several adjectives belong to a noun, they may either 
precede or follow it ; as, " A learned, wise and martial prince ;" 
or, "A prince learned, wise and martial." 

7. When the adjective is preceded by an adverb ; as, " The 
boy is regularly studious"* 

8. For the sake of beauty and force, the adjective is used to 
introduce a sentence, and the noun is placed after the verb ; as, 
" Great is the Lord." " Happy is the land that enjoys the 
smiles of Heaven." 

9. When an adjective is taken abstractly, it may follow a 
neuter verb, in the infinitive mode, or a neuter participle or 
participial noun; as, "To be dutiful, is always becoming in 
children." " I was not aware of his being able to accomplish 
so much." 

False Syntax. 
These man came to me saying that that people were com- 



160 § 238. Syntax— rules. 

ing. Who cut these tree ? I gave ten cents for this apples. 
I saw forty heads of deer crossing the lake on the ice. He 
drew twenty pailfulls of water. Forty sails came in sight. 
He gave him six pennies worth of sugar. There were five hun- 
dred heads of buffalo in the drove. 

QUESTIONS ON THE ADJECTIVES. 

First Course, 
What is rule 7th ? Rule 8th ? 

Second Course, 

To what adjectives is the seventh rule applicable ? Is the 
adjective ever used alone ? Give the substance of Rem. 3, 
§ 235. Do adjectives ever belong to verbs in the infinitive 
mode, participles used as nouns or to whole propositions ? Give 
instances. When the infinitive mode has qualifying terms con- 
nected with it, how is the adjective to be construed ? When a 
proposition has qualifying terms, to what part of it does the 
adjective belong ? Explain Rem. 7, § 235. In the use of the 
comparative degree, should the latter term ever include the 
former ? When should the latter term always include the 
former ? Give another instance when the superlative may be 
used. When several adjectives qualify a noun, are they con- 
nected by conjunctions? Explain Rem. 12, § 235. Are ad- 
jectives ever used adverbially ? Is this method of using the 
adjective allowable in prose ? When an adjective is placed af- 
ter the verb, what does it describe and qualify ? Terms used 
to distinguish persons, should be parsed as what ? May a nu- 
meral adjective denoting plurality belong to a noun in the sin- 
gular ? What is the general rule for the position of the adjec- 
tive ? Mention the nine cases where an adjective may come 
after the verb. 

Rule IX. 

$ 238. Relative and personal pronouns agree with 
their antecedents in gender*, person and number ; but 
their case depends on the construction of the clause to 
which they belong ; as, " The master who taught us." 
" The horse which runs." " The trees which grow." 
" For I am the least of the apostles, that am not meet to 
be called an apostle, because I persecuted the church 
of God." 



§"2S8. Syntax— rules. 161 

Rem. 1. Compound relative pronouns contain both the ante- 
cedent that and the relative which. The antecedent is parsed 
as a noun, and the relative as referring to it; as, "You do not 
understand what I mean f i. e. that which I mean. Here that is 
the antecedent and which is the relative. " Who lives to virtue 
rarely can be rich ;" i. e. he who lives to virtue, etc. " Whoever 
imagines that earthly pleasure is not alloyed with pain, will be 
disappointed ;" i. e. any one who imagines, etc. 

Rem. 2. The neuter pronoun it is sometimes applied to a 
child, and to other creatures naturally masculine or feminine, 
if their sex is not known ; as, " See that child ; how beautiful 
it is !" 

Rem. 3. The pronoun it is sometimes used without a definite 
antecedent ; as, " How fares it with you r" " Whether she 
grapples it with the pride of philosophy." This ise of it 
may be allowable in colloquial style, but not in any other. 

Rem. 4. // sometimes is the subject of a proposition, and the 
noun to which it refers is placed after the verb in the predicate. 
The noun may be of either gender, number or person ; as, " It 
is a testimony as glorious to his memory, as it is singular," etc. 
" But it is not this real essence that distinguishes them into spe- 
cies, but it is men who arrange them into sorts," etc. " Be of 
good cheer, it is V Sometimes it is a substitute for a pre- 
ceding or succeeding sentence or proposition ; as, " But with 
me it is a small thing that I should be judged of you." 1 Cor. 4: 3. 

Rem. 5. Pronouns often refer to a sentential noun as its an- 
tecedent, and in this case it is always of the third person neu- 
ter gender ; as, " John had the impression that he possessed extra- 
ordinary native talents, and it proved very injurious to him." 
" Newton pursued his investigations patiently, which was one great 
cause of his success." 

Rem. 6. The relative is sometimes omitted in the objective 
case ; as, " I have not received the book (which) you promised 
me." " The pleasures (wh : ch) we enjoy here, are not enduring." 

Rem. 7. When an inanimate object is personified, the pronoun 
referring to it, agrees with it in its figurative sense ; as, 

" Rarth felt the wound, and nature from her seat, 
Sig^hinar through all her works, gave signs of woe 
That aFl was lost." 

4; Must I thus leave thee, paradise t thus leave 
Thee, native soil, these happy walks and shades, 
Fit haunt of Gods !'' — Milton s Paradise Lost. 
14* 



162 § 238. Syntax— rules. 



Rem. 8. " When the antecedent is applied metaphorically, the 
pronoun agrees with it in its literal and not in its figurative 
sense ;" as, " Pitt was the pillar ivhich upheld the state." " The 
monarch of mountains rears his snowy head." 

Rem. 9. " When the antecedent is put, by metonomy, for a 
noun of different properties, the pronoun sometimes agrees 
with it in its figurative and sometimes in Its literal sense ;" as, 

" The wolf who (that) from the nightly fold, 
Fierce drags the bleating -prey, ne'er drunk her milk, 
Nor wore her warming fleece." — Thompson. 

u That each may fill the circle marked by Heaven, 
Who sees with equal eyes, as God of all, 
A hero perish or a sparrow fall." — Pope. 

" And Heaven beholds its image in its breast." 

Rem. 10. " When the antecedent is put, by synechdoche, for 
more or less than its literal signification, the pronoun agrees 
with it in the figurative and not in the literal sense ;" — Brown. 
as, 

" But to the generous but still improving mind 
That gives the hopeless heart to sing for joy, 
To him the long review of ordered life 
Is inward rapture only to be felt." 

Rem. 11. A noun in the singular number, preceded by the 
adjective many, is sometimes represented by a plural pronoun ; 
as, " Many a one ivho came to hear him, went home highly- 
pleased." 

Rem. 12. Who is applied only to persons or personified ani- 
mals ; Which to brutes and inanimate things ; that may be ap- 
plied to both persons, brutes, or things inanimate ; as, "Andre, 
ivho was hung as a spy." "The goods ivhich I purchased." 
" The men that were lost." 

Rem. 13. A pronoun sometimes refers to another pronoun of 
the possessive case as antecedent ; as, " All were extolling my 
fortune, who had a son endowed with such a disposition." 

Rem. 14. When the relative is preceded by two nominatives 
with a neuter verb between them, it may agree with either, ac- 
cording to the sense ; as, "I am the man who command you ;" 
or, " I am the man who commands you." The latter construc- 
tion is preferable, because it places the relative nearer its ante- 
cedent, and by consequence the expression is more perspicu- 
ous. 



§ 238. Syntax — rules. 163 

Rem. 15. " When the relative and the verb have been deter- 
mined to agree with either of the preceding nominatives, that 
agreement must be preserved throughout the sentence ;" as, 
" I am the Lord that maketh all things, and stretcheth forth the 
heavens alone." Isa. 44 : 24. By referring that to J, the con- 
struction would be changed ; as, " I am the Lord that make all 
things, and stretch forth the heavens." 

Rem. 16. In the Scriptures and some ancient writers, which 
is applied to persons ; as, " Our Father which art in heaven." — 
Bible. 

Rem. 17. When it is desirable to distinguish between two or 
more individuals, which is applied to persons ; as, " I know not 
which of them did it." 

Rem. 18. When a proper noun is not used in a sense strictly 
personal, which should supply its place, and not who ; as, " Ne- 
ro — which is but another name for tyranny and cruelty — perse- 
cuted the Christians with relentless fury. 

Rem. 19. The rules commonly used by grammarians with re- 
spect to the nominative and objective cases of relative pronouns, 
are omitted from the conviction that they are entirely unneces- 
sary. 

Rem. 20. The gender of pronouns, except the third person 
singular of personal pronouns, is known only by reference to 
their antecedents. 

Rem. 21. Who sometimes refers to collective nouns denoting 
the individuals expressed by them. 

Rem. 22. Which and what often belong, like adjectives, to 
nouns ; as, " What man is that r" " Which letter do you mean ?" 
When they have this construction in interrogatory sentences, 
they are called interrogative indefinite adjectives. 

Position. 

1. Relative and personal pronouns are usually placed after 
their antecedents; as, ''He is the man who is so devoted to 
the cause of humanity." 

2. An interrogative pronoun always precedes the noun which 
it represents. Hence the noun for which it stands, is called a 
subsequent, and is contained in the answer to the question ; as, 
" Who injured this book ? Jane." 

3. Both relative and interrogative pronouns are placed at or 
near the beginning of their clauses, and this is the case even 



164 § 238. Syntax— RtJi/£s. 

when they are in the objective case and governed by a suc- 
ceeding word. 

4. Sometimes pronouns precede the nouns which they rep- 
resent; as, "If a man declares in autumn when he is eating 
them, or in spring when there are none, that he loves grapes, etc." 

5. In order to avoid obscurity, the relative should be placed 
as near as possible to its antecedent. 

False Syntax — First Course* 

The river who runs so smoothly, is very deep. The man 
which rides on horseback. The trees who are cut down. The 
lady that was my sister, was in the stage. The teacher which 
preached to us, was an old man. The earth who was barren 
that year produced very abundantly the next. The male 
amongst birds seems to discover no beauty, but in the color of 
its species. Rebecca took goodly raiment which was with her 
in the house and put them upon Jacob. The wheel killed 
another man, which is the sixth which have lost their lives by 
this means. The fair sex whose task is not to mingle in the 
labors of public life, has its own part assigned to act. The 
Hercules man-of-war foundered at sea ; it overset, and lost 
most of its men. The mind of man cannot be long without 
some food to nourish the activity of its thoughts. What is the 
reason that our language is less refined than them of Italy, 
Spain, or Frauce ? I do not think any one should incur cen- 
sure for being tender of her reputation. Thou which has been 
a witness of the fact, can give an account of it. In religious 
concerns or which is conceived to be such every man must 
stand or fall by the decision of the great Judge. Something 
like that have been here premised, are the conjectures of Dry- 
den. 

False Syntax — Second Course. 

Whoever entertains such an opinion, he judges erroneously. 
Whoever goes to the top of Bird Mountain, they will be well 
recompensed for their trouble. Who first advances he shall 
die. Observe that little child — do not injure him. A young 
lamb with his mother came at the shepherd's call. And the 
sea gave up the dead that was in him ; and death and hell de- 
livered up the dead who were in them. Webster was the pil- 
lar who upheld the state in that crisis. He is like a beast of 



239. Syntax — rules. 165 



prey who destroys without pity. All were complimenting me 
upon my happiness in having a brother which has been so 
successful in his profession. I am the man that plunged into 
the river and who saved your son's life, and gave that sum of 
money for his support. Having once disgusted him, he could 
never regain the favor of Nero, who was indeed another name 
for cruelty. Who of those men came to his assistance ? Flat- 
tery, whose nature is to deceive and betray, should be avoided 
as the poisonous adder. Who was the money paid to ? I per- 
ceive that thou art a pupil who possesses bright parts, but who 
hast cultivated them but little. They who much is given to, 
will have much to answer for. 

Rule X. 

§ 239. A pronoun having two or more antecedents 
connected by and must agree with them in the plural 
number ; as, " Henry and Charles invested their pro- 
perty in land." 

Rem. 1. When the adjectives each, every, either, neither or no, 
are expressed or implied before each of the nouns connected 
by and, the pronoun must be in the singular number ; as, " each 
feeling, each thought, and each act of life makes its impress on 
the character of man." 

Rem. 2. When the nouns connected by and are emphatical, 
the singular pronoun may be used ; as, " James and not John 
showed his bad temper in the affair." 

Rem. 3. When the antecedents are of different persons, each 
having the same relative, the first person is preferable to the 
second, and the second to the third; as, "James, you, and /re- 
member our departure from the land of our birth with much 
interest." 

Rem. 4. When the antecedents of different genders are rep- 
resented by pronouns that denote gender by their form, the 
masculine should be preferred to the feminine, and the femi- 
nine to the neuter. 

False Syntax — First Course. 

Idleness and ignorance is the parent of many vices. What 
signifies the counsel and care of preceptors, when youth think 
they have no need of assistance ? Wisdom, virtue, happiness, 
dwells with the glorious mediocrity. In unity consists the wel- 



186 § 240. Syntax — rules. 

fare and security of every society. Patience and diligence, like 
faith, removes mountains. Religion and virtue, our best sup- 
port and highest honor, confers on the mind principles of no- 
ble independence. 

False Syntax — Second Course. 

Every leaf, every twig, every drop of water teem with life. 
Every person, whatever be their station, are bound by the du- 
ties of morality and religion. Neither of those men seem to 
have any idea, that their opinions may be ill-founded. By dis- 
cussing each particular in their order, we shall better understand 
the subject. Charles and not John gave their money to the 
blind man. Jane but not her brother went to see their cousins 
in the city. They, you, and I have done their duty. You and 
I have lost most of your friends. 

Rule XL 

§ 240. Pronouns having two or more singular ante- 
cedents connected by or or nor, must agree with them 
in the singular number ; as. " Neither Henry nor 
Charles dissipate his time." 

Rem. 1. The masculine pronoun singular may represent each 
individual of a collection embracing both sexes; as, "Every 
person that presents his petition in faith will be heard." 

Rem. 2. One or more singular or plural antecedents implying 
both masculine and feminine genders, and connected by or or 
nor may be represented by pronouns of different genders and 
numbers, if connected by or or nor ; as, " If some gentleman or 
lady will give his or her advice in this matter, we will be very 
thankful." 

False Syntax. 

Neither John, Charles, nor William saw their friends. Pre- 
cept nor discipline are not forcible as examples. Neither pas- 
sion nor envy will rule him by their sway. Neither his father 
nor his mother could influence him by their example. Man's 
happiness, or misery, are in a great measure, put into his own 
hands. There are many faults in spelling which neither analo- 
gy nor punctuation justify. 



§§ 241. Syntax — rules. 167 

Rule XLL 

<§> 241. A collective noun denoting the idea of unity 
should be represented by a pronoun of the singular 
number ; as, " The crowd was so great, that the judges 
with difficulty made their way through it." 

Rem. 1. It is difficult to determine in some cases whether 
the collective noun denotes the idea of unity or plurality. 
The only rule by which such cases should be decided is com- 
mon practice. 

Rem. 2. A collective noun denoting the idea of plurality, 
should be represented by a pronoun in the plural number; as, 
" The clergy withdrew themselves from the camp." " The as- 
sembly were divided in their opinion," 

False Syntax. 

When the nation complains, the rulers should listen to their 
voice. In the days of youth, the multitude eagerly pursue 
pleasure as their chief good. The council was not unanimous, 
and they separated without coming to any determination. The 
committee was divided in their sentiments, and they have re- 
ferred the business to a general meeting. The committee were 
very full when this point was decided, and their judgment has 
not been called in question. 

QUESTIONS ON THE PRONOUNS AND NOUNS. 

First Course. 
What is rule ninth ? Rule tenth ? Rule eleventh ? Rule 
twelfth ? 

Second Course. 
What is a compound relative pronoun ? To what is the 
pronoun it sometimes applied ? Give an instance where the 
pronoun it is used without a definite antecedent. Is it ever 
the subject of a proposition ? Give an example. Does a pro- 
noun ever refer to a sentential noun as its antecedent ? Is the 
relative ever omitted? When an inanimate object is personifi- 
ed, with what does the pronoun referring to it agree ? When 
an antecedent is applied metaphorically, in what sense does 
the pronoun agree with it ? When the antecedent is put by 



168 § 242. Syntax — rules. 

metonomy for a noun, in what sense does the pronoun agree 
with it ? When the antecedent is put by synecdoche for more or 
less than its literal signification, in what sense does the pro- 
noun agree with it ? By what is a singular noun, preceded by 
the adjective many, sometimes represented ? How is who appli- 
ed ? Give an instance where a pronoun refers to another pro- 
noun in the possessive case, as the antecedent. How do 
you dispose of a relative preceded by two nominatives with a 
neuter verb between ? What can you say with regard to the 
agreement of the relative and verb ? How is which sometimes 
applied in the Scriptures ? In what other case may ivhich be 
applied to persons ? When may ivhich supply the place of a 
proper noun ? Why are the rules, commonly used for the 
nominative and objective cases of relative pronouns, omitted in 
this grammar? How is the gender of personal pronouns 
known ? Give the five rules for the position of relative and 
personal pronouns. In what number must the pronoun be, 
when the adjectives each, every, either, neither or no are express- 
ed before nouns connected by and? When nouns connected 
by and are emphatical, what pronouns may be used? When 
antecedents are of different persons, each having the same rela- 
tion, what persons are to be preferred ? When should the 
masculine gender be preferred to the feminine, etc ? When 
do antecedents of different genders require pronouns applica- 
ble to each of them ? May two nouns of different genders be 
represented by one ? Repeat Rem. 3, § 140. How may we 
determine when a collective noun denotes idea of unity or 
plurality ? By what should a collective noun denoting idea of 
plurality be represented ? 

Rule Xffl. 

$ 242. Every finite verb must agree with its subject 
nominative in person and number ; as, " I read ; thou 
readest ; he reads ; they read." 

Rem. 1. Verbs in the infinitive mode have no number or 
person, and therefore have no agreement of number or person. 

Rem. 2. In poetry, when an address or answer is expressed, 
the verb is sometimes omitted ; as, " To whom our great pro- 
genitor (replied.) — Milton. 

Rem. 3. When a neuter verb is between two nominatives, it 
should agree with that which precedes it; as, " His meat was 



§ 243. Syntax— rules. 169 

locusts and wild honey." Except when the natural order of 
the nominatives is reversed ; as, " The wages of sin, is death" 
" His pavilion were dark waters and thick clouds of the sky." 

Rem. 4. A verb sometimes agrees with a verbal or senten- 
tial noun, as its subject-nominative ; as, " To lie, is base." " Thai 
a life of virtue is the safest is certain." 

Rem. 5. The position of the verb, may be learned by refer- 
ring to the rules for the position of the subject with which it 
agrees, and the object which it governs. 

Rem. 6. The verb is frequently understood which agrees 
with a subject-nominative. 

False Syntax. 
The inquisitive and curious is generally talkative. Great 
pains has been taken to reconcile the parties. He is an author 
of more credit than Plutarch, or any other that write lines too 
hastily. In the conduct of Bonaparte, a mixture of wisdom 
and folly were very conspicuous. The number of inhabitants 
in Great Britain and Ireland do not exceed sixteen millions. 
The smiles that encourage severity of judgment, hides malice 
and insincerity. He' dare not act contrary to his instructions. 
The support of so many of his relations, were a heavy tax up- 
on his industry ; but thou knowest he paid it carefully. The 
business that related to ecclesiastical meetings, matters, and 
persons, were to be ordered according to the king's direction. 
What avails the best sentiments, if persons do not live suitably 
to them ? And the fame of this person, and of his wonderful 
actions, were diffused throughout the country. The variety of 
the productions of genius, like that of the operations of nature, 
are without limit. There are many occasions in life, in which 
silence and simplicity is true wisdom. 

Rule XIV. 
<§> 243. The subject-nominative being a collective 
noun and denoting the idea of unity, requires a verb in 
the singular number ; as, " The nation is powerful ;" 
" The Parliament is dissolved." 

Remark. Collective nouns usually form the plural regularly ; 
as, " The nations are powerful." " The armies were routed." 

False Syntax. 

The flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects 

35 



170 §§244,245. Syntax:— rules. 

of the shepherd's care. The court have just ended, after hav- 
ing sat through the trial of a very long cause. The British 
parliament are composed of king, lords, and commons. The 
church have no power to inflict corporal punishment. The 
fleet were seen sailing up the channel. The regiment consist 
of a thousand men. The meeting have established several sal- 
utary regulations. Never were any people so much infatuated 
as the Jewish nation. The shoal of herrings were of an im- 
mense extent. 

Rule XV. 

§ 244. The subject-nominative being a collective 
noun and denoting the idea of plurality ', requires a verb 
in the plural number ; as, " The multitude were clam- 
orous for the object of their affections." 

False Syntax. 

The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow. 
The fleet are all arrived and moored in safety. Why does this 
people wish for greater evidence, when so much has already 
been given ? No society are chargeable with the disapproved 
misconduct of particular members. 

Rule XVI. 
§ 245. A verb having two or more singular nomina- 
tives connected by and, agrees with them in the plural 
number; as, "Socrates and Plato were wise ." "Rea- 
son and truth constitute intellectual gold, which defies 
destruction." — Johnson. 

Rem. 1. Two or more singular nominatives connected by 
and, and modified by each, every or no, do not require a plural 
verb ; as, "Each freeman and each slave was destroyed." "Ev- 
ery hill and dale is clothed with verdure." " No music of birds, 
and no voice of man, was heard in that solitary place." The 
verb agrees with the latter, and is understood before each of the 
preceding. 

Rem. 2. Two or more singular nominatives connected by 
and, and distinguished by emphasis, do not require a plural 
verb ; as, " Virtue and not wealth is the safeguard of youth." 
" James, and John also was absent last eve." " Knowledge, and 
knowledge only is a proof against error." ^n these examples also ? 



§ 245. Syntax — rules. 171 

the verb agrees with the latter noun, and is implied before each 
of the preceding. 

Rem. 3. And is sometimes implied between two or more nouns 
which are nominative to the same verb ; as, " Earth, air, fire and 
water, are the four elements of the ancients." When several 
particulars are named, and may be expressed or omitted. 
When the repetition of and adds to the ideas dignity, force or 
solemnity, it should be inserted. 

Rem. 4. A verb occurring between its nominatives agrees 
with that which precedes it, and is understood after those that 
follow it, unless all of them denote the same person or thing ; 
as, " Lucy will attend you, and also her sister, cousin and friend" 

Rem. 5. If the nominatives are of different persons, the verb 
should be in the first person plural, rather than the second, 
and in the second rather than the third ; i, you and he being 
represented by we ; and you and he by you ; as, " I and the Ro- 
man people declare and make war." — Livy. " If you and Tullia 
are well, Cicero and 1 are well." — Cicero. 

Rem. 6. Two or more singular nominatives connected by and 
and denoting the same person or thing, are in apposition and 
require a verb in the singular number ; as, " Thus the patriot, 
statesman, and the hero is taken away by the liand of death." 

Rem. 7. Two or more verbal or sentential- nouns denoting 
plurality of idea, and connected by conjunctions, require a verb 
in the plural ; as, " To profess and to possess are two very dif- 
ferent things." 

Rem. 8. Two or more verbal or sentential nouns, denoting 
unity of idea, and connected by conjunctions, require a verb in 
the singular ; as, " To serve God and enjoy him forever is the 
privilege of the saint." 

False Syntax. 

His politeness and good disposition was, on the failure of their 
effect, entirely changed. The planetary system, boundless 
space, and the immense ocean, affects the mind with sensations 
of astonishment. What signifies the counsel and oare of pre- 
ceptors, when youth think they have no need of assistance. 
Each of them, in their turn, receive the benefits to which they 
are entitled. My counsel to each of you is, that you should 
make it your endeavor to come to a friendly agreement. Every 
man's heart and temper is productive of much inward joy or 
bitterness. When benignity and gentleness reign within, we 



172 §246. Syntax — rules. 

are always least in hazard from without ; every person and 
every occurrence, are beheld in the most favorable light. By 
discussing each particular, in their order, we shall better under- 
stand the subject. On either side of the river was there the 
tree of life. He and he only are in the wrong. Cooper, Good- 
rich and Cummings too are here. To see young persons who 
are courted by health and pleasure, resist all the allurements 
of vice, and steadily pursue virtue and knowledge, is cheering 
and delightful to every good mind. To be firm, to be decided, 
and yet to be free from prejudice, are qualities difficult as it is 
worthy of imitation. 

Rule XVII. 

§ 246. A verb having two or more singular nomi- 
natives connected by or or nor, agrees with them in 
the singular number ; as, " Neither suffering nor dan- 
ger alarms him." " Fear or interest affects him." 

Rem. 1. Two or more distinct verbal or sentential nouns 
connected by or or nor, require a verb in the singular number ; 
as, " To choose life or death is the privilege of all men." " That 
a drunkard is wretched or sinks into the deepest disgrace is not 
strange." 

Rem. 2. A verb having nominatives of different persons con- 
nected by or or nor, agrees with that which immediately pre- 
cedes it, and is understood after the others ; as, " Neither per- 
suasion nor arguments influence him." When the nominative 
which immediately precedes, is parenthetical, the verb agrees 
with the former in number and person ; as, " Giavolo, (a cele- 
brated banditti chief,) was captured in the expedition." 

Rem. 3. When the nominatives connected by or or nor, de- 
note the same person or thing the verb usually agrees in num- 
ber with the first ; as, " Mexican figures, or picture writing, 
represent things, not words ; they exhibit images to the eye, 
not ideas to the understanding." — Murray. 

Rem. 4. When the nominatives are of different numbers and 
persons, and consequently require different forms of the verb, 
good style requires that the auxiliary of the verb be placed 
after each of them : as, " Either thou hast erred or I have? 
" Neither were his faults, nor was his danger understood." 

Rem. 5. The speaker should name himself last; as, "He sa- 



§ 247. Syntax — rules. 173 

luted my friend and me." Except in the confession of faults, 
then he should speak of himself first 

Rem. 6. Sometimes singular nominatives connected by or or 
nor, require a verb in the plural. Such a construction, how- 
ever, is seldom found in good authors, and therefore should be 
carefully avoided. 

False Syntax. 

Man's happiness, or misery, are, in a great measure, put in 
his own hands. Man is not such a machine as a clock or a 
watch which move merely as they are moved. A tart reply, a 
proneness to rebuke, or a captious and contradictious spirit, 
are capable of embittering domestic life, and of setting friends 
at variance. Speaking impatiently to servants, or any thing 
that betrays unkindness or ill-humour, are certainly criminal. 
Let it be remembered, that it is not the uttering, or the hearing 
of certain words, that constitute the worship of the Almighty. 
When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune affect us, the 
sincerity of friendship is proved. Either thou or I art greatly 
mistaken. I or thou am the persons who must undertake the 
business proposed. Both of the scholars, or one of them at 
least, was present at the transaction. Some parts of the ship 
and cargo were recovered ; but neither the sailors nor the cap- 
tain was saved. The cares of this life, or the deceitfulness of 
riches, has choked the seeds of virtue in many a promising 
mind. Neither did he do it, nor you. Neither were his vir- 
tues nor talents appreciated. You, I, and he, all went to New 
York. He, you and I, all greatly erred in this matter. You 
acted unjustly,* and so did L 

Rule XVHI. 

§ 247. The present perfect and compound perfect 
participles refer to a noun or pronoun as a subject or 
actor ; as, " I saw a man walking" u This done, the 
assembly was dismissed." " Having wearied himself 
with labor, he sat down to rest." 

Rem. 1. Participles sometimes refer to a verbal or sentential 
noun ; as, " To do ivrong, ever being his delight." " That he 
might free man from sin and its consequences, being the object of 
his mission." 

15* 



174 § 247. Syntax — rules. 

Rem. 2. The present and compound participles are some- 
times used as participial nouns, and are the subjects of verbs, 
or governed by verbs or prepositions ; as, " Caviling and object- 
ing upon any subject is much easier than clearing up difficul- 
ties." " And in keeping them there is great reward." — Bible. 
"Wherefore let them that suffer according to the will of God, 
commit the keeping of their souls to him in well doing, as unto 
a faithful Creator." — Bible. 

Rem. 3. Participial nouns are sometimes followed by a noun 
in the objective case ; as, " By always observing, the law of 
right, we have a conscience void of offence toward God and 
man." 

False Syntax. 

I have saw many a one. He had done me no harm, for I 
had wrote my letter before he came home. Had not that mis- 
fortune befel my cousin, he would have went to Europe long 
ago. The French language is spoke in every state in Europe. 
He returned the goods which he had stole, and made all the 
reparation in his power. Pliny, speaking of Cato the Censor's 
disapproving the Grecian orators, expressed himself thus. The 
not attending to this rule, is the cause of a very common error. 
They who have bore a part in this labor, shall share the re- 
wards. By too eager pursuit, he run great risk of being disap- 
pointed. The cloth had no seam, but was wove throughout 

QUESTIONS ON THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 

First Course. 

What is rule 13th ? Rule 14th ? Rule 15th ? Rule 16th ? 
Rule 17th ? Rule 18th ? 

Second Course. 

Do verbs in the infinitive mode have number and person ? 
In poetry, when an address is made, is the verb sometimes 
omitted ? When a neuter verb is between two nominatives, 
with which does it agree ? Does a verb ever agree with a 
sentential noun ? How may the position of the verb be learn- 
ed ? How do collective nouns usually form their plural ? Do 
two or more singular nominatives connected by and, and modi- 
fied by each, every or no, require a plural verb ? When two 
or more singular nominatives are connected by and, and dis- 



§ 248. Syntax — rules. 175 

tinguished by emphasis, what verb do they require ? Is and 
ever implied between two or more nouns nominative to the 
same verb ? When a verb occurs between its nominatives, is 
it expressed after .each? If the nominatives are of different 
persons, with which should the verb agree ? What verb do 
two or more singular nominatives connected by and, and denot- 
ing the same person or thing require ? What verb do two or 
more sentential nominatives, denoting plurality, and connected 
by conjunctions require ? What verb do those denoting unity 
require ? What verb do sentential nouns connected by or or 
nor require ? When a verb has nominatives of different per- 
sons connected by or or nor, with which does it agree ? When 
the nominatives connected by or or nor denote the same person 
or thing, with which does the verb usually agree ? When the 
nominatives are of different persons and numbers, what does 
good style require with regard to the verb ? When should the 
speaker name himself? Do good authors ever make use of 
plural verbs agreeing with singular nominatives connected by 
or or nor ? What do participles sometimes refer to ? For 
what are the present and compound participles sometimes 
used ? By what are participial nouns sometimes followed ? 

Rule XIX. 

<§> 248. A noun or pronoun denoting the possessor, is 
generally governed by the following noun denoting the 
thing possessed ; as, " In my Father's house are many 
mansions." " The dying man's hope." 

Rem. 1. When the thing possessed belongs to a number sev- 
erally specified, the sign of the possessive case is in some in- 
stances repeated with each, and in others affixed only to the 
last ; as, " He has the surgeon's and physician's advice." 
" This is Henry, William and Joseph's estate." The best style 
sanctions the last example. 

Rem. 2. When the possessor is described by two or more 
nouns so connected as not to admit of a possessive sign, and 
the last of them is in the objective case after a preposition, the 
possessive sign is affixed to it ; as, " Edward the Second, of 
England's queen." — Bacon on Empire. " The captain of the 
guard's house." — Bible. 

Rem. 3. When none of the nouns which describe the pos- 
sessor are in the objective case, the possessive sign is also af- 
fixed to the last ; as, " John the Baptist's time." 



176 § 948. Syntax — rules. 



Rem. 4. The possessive sign is sometimes affixed to. an ad- 
jective ; as, " In Edward the Third's time." Better, " In the time 
of Edward the Third." 

Rem. 5. When the nouns denoting the possessor and the 
thing possessed are not expressed, the possessive sign may be 
affixed to an adjective ; as, " A rich man's joys increase, the 
poor's decay .;" that is, the poor man's joys decay. 

Rem. 6. When the thing possessed is obvious, the noun de- 
noting the possessor is usually omitted ; as, " Let us go to St. 
PauVs ;" that is, St. Paul's church. "He is at the President's ;" 
that is, house. 

Rem. 7. To avoid a hissing sound and to facilitate pronun- 
ciation, the apostrophic s is sometimes omitted, and the posses- 
sive sign is retained when the noun is in the singular number ; 
as, " For righteousness'' sake." 

Rem. 8. Explanatory circumstances should not be introduced 
between the possessive case and the following noun ; as, " She 
began to extol the farmer's— as she called him — excellent under- 
standing." Better thus, " She began to extol the excellent un- 
derstanding of the farmer, as she called him." 

Rem. 9. When a sentence consists of terms that denote the 
name and office of a person, and is so connected as to admit of 
a pause, the possessive sign is affixed to the noun denoting the 
person, and not to that which signifies his office ; as, " I left a 
parcel at Smith's the bookseller." " Whose glory did he emu- 
late ? He emulated Ccesar's, the greatest ' general of antiquity." 
" This ; is Paul's advice, the christian hero, and the greatest 
apostle of the gentiles," 

Rem. 10. When the possessive case prevents the smoothness 
of a sentence, the preposition of should be substituted in its 
place if possible ; as, " The general in the army's name, pub- 
lished a declaration." " Unless he is very ignorant of the king- 
dom's condition." Better thus, " In the name of the army ;" — 
" The condition of the kingdom." 

Rem. II. The practice of connecting three or more nouns 
dependent on each other by the preposition of which is fre- 
quently used instead of the possessive case, should be generally 
avoided ; as, " The severity of the distress of the son of the 
king, touched the nation." Better thus, " The severe distress 
of the king's son, touched the nation." 

Rem. 12. Participial nouns as well as pure nouns govern the 
possessive case ; as, " This will be the effect of the pupil's com- 



§ 249. Syntax— rules. 177 

posing frequently." " A courier arrived from Madrid with an ac- 
count of his Majesty's having agreed to the neutrality" " There 
is no reason for hydrogen's being an exception." The posses- 
sive sign should not be omitted in any of these cases. " This 
will be the effect of the pupil composing frequently," is incor- 
rect. 

Rem. J 3. Sometimes the possessive sign and the preposition 
of are used ; as, " Vital air was a discovery of Dr. Priestley's." 
" It is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's." 

Position. 

<§> 249. The possessive case usually precedes imme- 
diately the governing noun ; as, " All nature's differ- 
ence, keeps all nature's peace." " It is thine — i. e. 
thy province — to calm the troubled spirit.' 5 

Rem. ] . To this general rule, there are the following ex- 
ceptions; as, 

1. When a noun in apposition intervenes, or when the case 
occurs without a sign ; as, "In her brother Absalom's house." 
" Moses and Jlarorfs devotions." 

2. When an adjective intervenes; as, "Eveningfs gentle 
dews." 

False Syntax. 

My ancestors virtue is not mine. A mothers tenderness and 
a fathers care are natures gift's for mans advantage. Never- 
theless, Asa, his heart was perfect with the Lord. I will not 
destroy the city for ten sake. It was the men's, women's and 
children's lot, to suffer great calamities. This measure gained 
the king, as w T ell as the people's approbation. Not only the 
counsel's and attorney's, but the judge's opinion also, fa- 
vored his cause. Jackson's, the President of the United States, 
wife was then dead. I will not for David's, thy father's sake. 
He took refuge at the governor, the king's representative. In 
Henry the Eight's reign, there was a war. They both had their 
failings — his, were pride and haughtiness ; — her, carelessness 
and inatteution. Charles, shall we go down to Spencer? 
Were you ever at St. Cloud ? Ye should be subject for con- 
science's sake. Moses rod was turned into a serpent. They 
very justly condemned the prodigal's, as he was called, sense- 
less and extravagant conduct. They implicitly obeyed the pro- 
tector's, as they called him, imperious mandates. I bought the 



178 § 250. Syntax — rules, 

knives at Johnson's, the cutler's. That is the eldest son of the 
king of England's. This estate of the corporation's is much en- 
cumbered. It is very probable that this assembly was called, to 
clear some doubt which the king had, about the lawfulness of 
the Hollanders, their throwing off the monarchy of Spain, and 
their withdrawing entirely their allegiance to that crown. 

QUESTIONS ON THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

First Course. 

Repeat Rule 19th. What is the usual position of the pos- 
sessive case ? 

Second Course. 

What is said with regard to the sign of the possessive case, 
when the thing possessed belongs to a number severally speci- 
fied ? What idea is conveyed in Rem. 2, § 248 ? When none 
of the nouns which describe the person are in the objective 
case, where is the possessive sign ? Is the possessive sign ever 
prefixed to an adjective ? Give an instance. Under what other 
circumstances may the possessive sign be prefixed to an adjec- 
tive ? Mention an example. When is the noun denoting the 
possessor usually omitted ? Why is the apostrophic s some- 
times omitted ? Should explanatory circumstances be intro- 
duced between the possessive case and the following noun ? 
When there are terms denoting the name and office of a person, 
to which should the sign of the possessive be affixed ? When 
is the preposition of sometimes substituted for the possessive 
case ? Should three or more nouns, dependent on each other, 
be connected by q/*? Do participial nouns govern the posses- 
sive case ? Is the possessive case, and the preposition of ever 
used together ? Give an instance. What two exceptions to the 
general rule for the position of the possessive case ? 

Rule XX. 

<§> 250. Nouns denoting duration of time, measure or 
value, are often put after verbs and adjectives without a 
governing word ; as, " He lived thirty years" " The 
wall is ten feet high." " This article is worth five 
shillings''' 



§§251,252. Syntax— rules. 179 



Rule XXI. 



§ 251. The object of an active transitive verb is put 
in the objective case ; as, " The mind moves the body." 
" Children imitate their parents" " In the beginning 
God created the heavens and the earth" — Bible. 

Rem. 1. The passive verb is sometimes followed by a noun 
in the objective case ; as, " Their bishops and abbots were all 
allowed then* seats in the house of lords." " Theresa was for- 
bid the presence of the emperor." " He was shown that very story 
in one of his own books." This, however, is an unnatural in- 
version of the order of the subject and object. The more 
proper arrangement is the following : " Seats in the house of 
lords were allowed to the bishops and abbots." Such idioms 
should be carefully avoided. 

Rem. 2. The object is often understood after transitive verbs ; 
as, " He studies (his lesson)." 

Rem. 3. When active transitive verbs are followed by two 
objectives, one is governed by a preposition understood ; as, 
" He promised (to) me a present ;" except nouns after verbs of 
asking and teaching, and also those that signify to name or call, 
render or constitute, to reckon or esteem. 

Rem. 4. Transitive verbs sometimes govern a part or a whole 
sentence as their object ; as, " He is not alarmed so far as to 
consider how much nearer he approaches to his end." " Whether that 
which we call ecstasy he not dreaming ivith the eyes open, I leave to 
be examined." — Locke, 2. 19. The clauses in italics, in these 
examples, are sentential nouns. 

Position. 

<§> 252. The objective case usually follows the verb 
by which it is governed. To this general rule there are, 
however, some exceptions. 

1. When the objective case is emphatic, it precedes the nomi- 
native ; as, " Silver and gold have I none." — Bible. 

" But through the heart 
Should jealousy its venom once diffuse," — TJiomson. 

2. When the objective is a pronoun ; as, " Whom ye igno- 
rantly worship, him declare I unto you." — Bible. 

3. A noun with whatever, whatsoever or whichever preceding it, 



180 §§ 253, 254. Syntax— rules. 

is generally placed before the governing word ; as, " Whatso- 
ever ideas we have." — Locke, Sometimes it is placed after it ; 
as, " He gave him what things he chose." 

False Syntax. 

They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has 
corrupted, cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature. You 
have reason to dread his wrath, which one day will destroy ye 
both. That is the friend who you must receive cordially, and 
who you cannot esteem too highly. He who committed the 
offence you should correct, not I who am innocent. Though 
he now takes pleasure in them he will one day repent him of 
indulgences so unwarrantable. It will be difficult to agree his 
conduct with the principles he professes. To ingratiate with 
some, by traducing others, marks a base and despicable mind. 
If such maxims, and such practices prevail, what has become 
of decency and virtue ? He was entered into the connexion, 
before the consequences were considered. Search the scrip- 
tures ; for in them ye think ye have eternal life ; and they are 
them which testify of me. He so much resembled my brother, 
that, at first sight, I took it to be he. It could not have been 
her, for she always behaves discreetly. Let them and we unite 
to oppose this growing evil. Whatever others do, let thou and 
I act wisely. I cannot tell who has befriended me, unless it is 
him from whom I have received many benefits. 

Rule XXII. 
<§> 253. Verbs of asking and teaching are followed 
by two objectives, one of a person and the other of the 
thing ; as, " When they shall read who taught Epami- 
nondas music" " A parent teaches his children good 
manners" " Ask him his opinion" " You have 
asked him the news" 

Rule XXHI. 
<§> 254. " Verbs signifying to name or call, to render 
or constitute, to esteem or reckon, are followed by two 
objectives, denoting the same person or thing;" as, 
" He named his child John" " He named the city 
Antioch" "He rendered himself a pleasing com- 
panion" 



§ 255. Syntax — rules. 181 



Rule XXIV. 

<§> 255. Active transitive participles are followed by 
the same cases as their verbs ; as, " Having accom- 
plished his labor, he retired to rest." " A person pur- 
suing one object constantly, will very surely attain -it." 

Rule XXV. 

<§> 256. Active intransitive, neuter or passive verbs 
have the same case after them as before, when it de- 
notes the same person or thing ; as, " It is I, be not 
afraid." " Who do men say that lam ?" " The child 
was named John." " Dido walks a queen" 

Rem. 1. Some active intransitive verbs govern an objective 
of a kindred signification to their own ; as, " He lived a life of 
virtue." * Let me die the death of the righteous, and let my 
last end be like his." Num. 23: 10. " And Joseph dreamed a 
dream." Gen. 37: 5. " To run a race" 

Rem. 2. When an intransitive, neuter or passive verb in the 
infinitive mode has an objective case before it, the noim or 
pronoun that follows it must be in the same case ; as, " I knew 
him to be a man of integrity." Sometimes the verb in the in- 
finitive is understood. 

False Syntax. 

Suspecting not only ye, but they also, I was studious to 
avoid all intercourse. From having exposed hisself too freely 
in different climates, he entirely lost his health. By observing 
of truth, you will command esteem, as well as secure peace. 
A person may be great or rich by chance, but cannot be good, 
without the taking pains for it. The middle station of life 
seems to be most advantageously situated for gaining of wis- 
dom. Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon supplying 
our wants ; and riches upon the enjoying our superfluities. 
Propriety of pronunciation is the giving to every word that 
sound, which the most polite usage of the language appropri- 
ates to it. It was from our misunderstanding the directions 
that we lost our way. By reading of books written by the best 
authors, his mind became highly improved. He had not long 
enjoyed repose, before he began to be weary of having nothing 

16 



182 §§ 257, 258. Syntax— RtriiES. 

to do. Though his conduct was in some respects exceptiona- 
ble, yet he dared not commit so great an offence, as that which 
was proposed to him. He writes as the t>est authors would 
have wrote, had they writ on the same subject. His resolution 
was too strong to be shook by slight opposition. The bread 
that has Been eat is soon forgot. They have chose the part of 
honor and virtue. 

Rule XXVI. 

<§> 257. Active intransitive, passive and neuter parti- 
ciples are followed by the same cases as their verbs ; as, 
" He being a mem of leisure sought every place of 
amusement." 

Rem. 1. Sometimes neuter participles have a noun or pro- 
noun in the possessive case before them and the nominative 
case after them ; as, " The value of the graphic art consists in* 
its being a medium for the acquisition of knowledge, and for 
the communication of it." — Porter's Analysis, p. 15, 

' Rule XXVII. 

§ 258. Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, 
" They went out from us, but were not of us ; for if 
they had been of us, they would have continued with 
us." 1 John 2: 1 9. 

Rem. 1. In parsing the preposition the learner should be re- 
quired to state between what tenses of the proposition or sen- 
tence it expresses a relation. 

Rem. 2, To is not a preposition, when it is a sign of the in- 
finitive mode. 

Rem. 3. The prepositions to and/0?* are often understood be- 
fore pronouns, and sometimes before nouns ; as, " Give me the 
book." " Get me some paper," i. e. to me, and for me. " Wo 
is me," i. e. to me. " He was banished England" i. e. from 
England. 

Rem. 4. Prepositions are often understood after like or unlike, 
and adjectives that denote similarity and contiguity ; as, " He is 
like his father, i. e. to his father. " He went near him" i. e. to 
him. 

Rem. 5. Prepositions expressed sometimes govern a noun or 
pronoun understood ; as, " He gazed around" i. e. him. 



§ 259. Syntax — rules. 183 

Rem. 6. Different relations must be expressed by different pre 
positions, though in conjunction with the same verb or adjec- 
tive ; as, " To converse with a person upon a subject in a house," 
etc. — Murray. 

Rem. 7. Sometimes the preposition is separated from the 
noun which it governs. 

Position. 
$ 259. Prepositions are put immediately before the 
nouns and pronouns which they govern. There are 
the following exceptions ; as, 

1. When the preposition is separated from the relative it 
governs ; as, " Whom will you give it to ?" Instead of " To 
whom will you give it ?" " He is an author whom I am much 
delighted with? In colloquial and epistolary style, this idiom 
is common, and perhaps allowable ; but in grave and elevated 
style, it is inelegant and perplexing. Sometimes the pronoun 
which precedes it and which it governs is understood ; as 
" There is the man I was working for," i. e. whom, etc. 

2. When the preposition is separated from the noun or pro- 
noun which it governs, to connect different prepositions with 
the same word ; as, " To suppose the zodiac and planets to be 
efficient of and antecedent to themselves." This idiom in forms 
of law where fulness and exactness of expression is of the 
highest importance, may be allowable. But in both familiar 
and solemn style, such a construction should always be avoid- 
ed as inelegant. 

3. Sometimes a preposition is placed before an adjective and 
unites with it to constitute adverbial phrases ; as, " In gener- 
al ;" "at large;" "at least;" "at last" 

False Syntax. 

He laid the suspicion upon somebody, I know not who, in 
the company. To poor we, there is not much hope remaining. 
What concord can subsist between those who commit crimes, 
and they who abhor them ? Who did he receive that intelli- 
gence from ? The person who I travelled with, has sold the 
horse which he rode on during the journey. To have no one 
whom we heartily wish well to, and whom we are warmly con- 
cerned for, is a deplorable state. On these occasions, the pro- 
noun is governed by, and consequently agrees with, the pre- 
ceding word. She finds a difficulty of fixing her mind. There 



184 § 25& Syntax — rules. 

was no water, and he died for thirst. The error was occasion- 
ed by compliance to earnest entreaty, though conformable with 
custom, it is not warrantable. His parents think on him, and his 
improvements, with pleasure and hope. There appears to have 
been a million men brought into the field. The Saxons reduc- 
ed the greater part of Britain to their own power. They were 
some distance from home, when the accident occurred. The 
politeness of the world has the same resemblance with benevo- 
lence, that the shadow has with the substance. Civility marks 
its way among every kind of persons. When we have had a 
true taste for the pleasures of true virtue, we can have no rel- 
ish of those of vice. I have been to London, after having re- 
sided a year at France ; and I now live in Islington. They 
have just landed in Boston, and are going for Washington. 

QUESTIONS ON THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 

First Course. 

What is the 20th rule? The 21st? Where is the objec- 
tive case usually placed ? What is the 22nd rule ? Rule 23d ? 
Rule 24th ? Rule 25th ? Rule 26th ? Rule 27th ? What is 
the general rule for the position of prepositions ? 

Second Course. 

Is a passive verb ever followed by a noun in the objective 
case-? Is the object often understood after transitive verbs ? 
When an active verb is followed by two objectives, how is one 
of them governed ? Do transitive verbs ever govern a whole 
sentence? Give an illustration. What three exceptions are 
there to the general rule for the position of the objective ? Give 
an example where an active-intransitive verb governs an objec- 
tive of a kindred signification with its own. When an intran- 
sitive, neuter or passive verb in the infinitive has an objective 
case before it, in what case muse the noun or pronoun be, which 
follows it ? In parsing a preposition, what should the learner 
be required to state ? When is to not a preposition ? What 
prepositions are often understood before nouns, and before 
some pronouns ? After what adverbs and adjectives is the pre- 
position sometimes understood ? Do prepositions expressed 
ever govern a noun understood ? Are different relations ex- 
pressed by different prepositions, though in conjunction with 
the same verbs or adjectives ? What two exceptions to the 
general rule for the position of prepositions ? 



§§ 260, 261. Syntax— rules. 185 



Rule XXVLU. 

<§> 260. The infinitive mode may be governed by 
verbs, participles, adjectives, nouns and pronouns ; as, 
" He desires to learn" " He is wishing him to de- 
part" 

Rem. 1. The infinitive is sometimes governed by as and 
than ; as, " An object so high as to be invisible" " It were bet- 
ter to give a little, than to lose the whole." " A question so ob- 
scure as to perplex the understanding." 

Rem. 2. The infinitive mode is sometimes governed by an 
adverb, and a preposition when it is not used as a verbal noun ; 
as, " He is wise enough to avoid danger." " My friend is about 
to leave" 

Rem. 3. * The verb which governs the infinitive is often un- 
derstood ; as, " To be, or not to be," i. e. am I to be, etc 

Rule XXIX. 

§261. Verbs following bid, dare, let, see, need, 
make, hear, feel and their participles, are put in the 
infinitive mode without the sign to prefixed ; as, " He 
bids him go. " He makes him labor" 

Remark. When the verbs above named are in the passive 
voice the sign to is expressed, and also sometimes when they 
are in the active voice ; as, " He was seen to walk" " I heard 
him to say." The latter expression, however, is inelegant, and 
should be avoided. 

False Syntax. 

I need not to solicit him to do a kind action. I have seen 
some young persons to conduct themselves very discreetly. It 
is a great support to virtue, when we see a good mind to main- 
tain its patience and tranquillity, under injuries and affliction, 
and to cordially forgive its oppressors. And the multitude 
wondered, when they saw the lame to walk, and the blind to see. 
It is the difference of their conduct, which makes us see the 
one, and to reject the other. They acted with so much re- 
serve, that some persons doubted them to be sincere. 

16* 



186 §§ 262, 263. Syntax— rules. 



Rule XXX. 

<§> 262. The infinitive is sometimes used as a verbal 
noun, and may be the subject of a verb, or the object 
of a transitive verb or preposition ; as, " To see the sun 
is pleasant." 

Remark. When the verbal noun is in the nominative case, it 
requires the verb to be in the third person. 

Rule XXXI. 

<§> 263. The infinitive mode denoting purpose or mo- 
tive, and not depending upon the rest of the sentence, 
is considered absolute. In such a construction, it sup- 
plies the place of that, and an entire proposition or sen- 
tence ; as, " To confess the truth, I was in fault ;" i. e. 
that I may confess the truth, I was in fault." " To 
conclude" i. e. that I may conclude, etc. 

Remark. " This idiom seems to be derived from the use of 
for before the verb to see. The more modern practice is to 
prefix some noun ; as, "In order to see," or, "With a view to see." 

QUESTIONS ON THE INFINITIVE MODE. 

First Course. 
What is Rule 28th ? Rule 29th ? Rule 30th ? Rule 31st ? 

Second Course. 

What two adverbs sometimes govern the infinitive ? Is the 
infinitive ever governed by an adverb and a preposition to- 
gether ? Give some instances. Is the sign to ever prefixed to 
the verbs mentioned in the 29tb rule ? Is this mode of expres- 
sion elegant ? When the verbal noun is in the nominative case, 
in what person must the verb be ? From what is the peculiar 
construction mentioned in Rule 31st derived ? What is the 
more modern practice ? 



§§ 264, 265. Syntax— -rules. 187 



Rule XXXII. 

<§> 264. Copulative and disjunctive conjunctions con- 
nect words that are in the same construction ; as, 
" John and James are studying ; " The mind loves and 
admires simple truth." " Washington was a great and 
a good man." 

Rem. 1. " Words are in the same construction when they 
have the same relation to some other word or words in the 
sentence." Hence, nouns are in the same construction when 
they agree in gender, number and case. Verbs are in the 
same construction when they are in the same mode and tense. 
Adjectives are in the same construction when they describe the 
same noun or pronoun. Adverbs are in the same construction 
when they qualify the same word. 

Rem. 2., Copulative and disjunctive conjunctions, as well as 
others, sometimes connect words that are not in the same con- 
struction. 

Rem. 3. But and save are parsed as prepositions when they 
denote except or aside from, and are followed by a noun or pro- 
noun in the objective case ; as, " All have prospered but the 
youngest." 

Rem. 4. As often connects nouns that denote the same per- 
son or thing ; as, " He treated him as a human being" 

Rem. 5. Nouns or pronouns which follow than, as or but, 
are frequently the subjects of verbs understood ; as, " The dis- 
cussion is darker than the subject." 

Rem. 6. Conjunctions acquire the nature of nouns and are 
parsed as such. 

Rule XXXHL 

<§> 265. Adverbs modify verbs, participles, adjectives 
or adverbs ; as, " He made a very sensible discourse ; 
he spoke unaffectedly and forcibly" 

Rem. 1. The adverbs whence, hence and thence imply the prepo- 
sition jrom, and therefore it should not be used before them ; 
as, "An ancient author prophesies from whence;" better ivlience 
alone. 

Rem. 2. Sometimes adverbs are used as nouns, and should 
be parsed as such ; as, " For all the promises of God in him 



188 § 266. Syntax — rules. 

are yea and in him amen, unto the glory of God by us." 2 Cor» 
1:20. 

Rem. 3. Adverbs sometimes modify verbs understood ; as, 
" Charge ! Chester, charge ! On ! Stanley, on !"— Scott, Here 
on modifies go understood. 

Rem. 4. Connective adverbs sometimes qualify two verbs ; 
as, " He had left when his brother arrived." Here when modi- 
fies left and arrived. 

Rem. 5. Adverbs often acquire by their position in a sen- 
tence the nature of an adjective ; as, " The above accounts." 

Rem. 6. There is often used as an expletive, adding nothing 
to the sense ; as, " There is a person at the door." The same 
may be expressed thus : A person is at the door. 

Rem. 7. Adverbs should not generally be used as adjectives, 
nor adjectives as adverbs ; as, " exceeding lovely ;" better thus : 
exceedingly lovely. 

Rem. 8. Amen, construed as an adverb, is generally used in- 
dependently at the close of affirmations and prayers, and de- 
notes, so let it be ; as, " The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be 
with you all. Amen? 

Rem. 9. Nay, no, yea and yes, when construed as adverbs, are 
used independently and are generally equivalent to a sentence, 
especially in answering questions ; as, "Will you comply with 
my terms ? No" i. e. / ivill not comply. " Will you go to town 
to-day? Fes," i. e. J will go to-day. 

Rem. 10. No should not be used instead of not, and made to 
modify verbs ; as, " You must submit, whether you choose, or 
no" It should be not, as the verb choose is understood. The 
adverb no does not qualify a verb or participle. 

Rebi. 11. The adverbs no, nay, yes and yea, also some others, 
are sometimes repeated to make the expression more intense ; 
as, "Will you betray your trust ? No ! no ! I will not." "Verily, 
verily, I say unto you, except a man be born again, he cannot 
see the kingdom of God." John 3: 3. 

Rem. 12. Sometimes adverbs are repeated for the sake of in- 
tensity ; as, " Verily, verily, I say unto you." 

Position. 

$ 266. Adverbs are generally placed near the words 
which they modify. The following remarks will more 
fully illustrate the position of adverbs. 






§ 266. Syntax— rules. 189 

Rem. 1. They are generally placed before adjectives ; as, 
" Sincerely penitent." " Widely different." 

Rem. 2. Adverbs generally follow the verb and participle 
when single; as, "He labors diligently." If the verb is transi- 
tive and has an object after it, the adverb is placed after the 
object; as, "He received reproof thankfully." To this general 
rule, there are many exceptions. Regard should always be had 
to perspicuity, harmony and force in placing adverbs in a sen- 
tence. 

Rem. 3. When an auxiliary verb and a perfect participle are 
used, the adverb is placed between them, or after the partici- 
ple ; as, u I am seriously alarmed." " The rebuke was given 
hastily" 

Rem. 4. " When adverbs are emphatical, they may introduce 
and be separated from the verb which they modify ; as, " How 
completely this most amiable of human virtues had taktn posses- 
sion of his soul." — Porter's Led. 8. Always uniformly precedes 
the verb. Never commonly precedes a single verb, except be, 
which it follows ; as, u We are never absent from church on 
Sunday." It is sometimes placed before an auxiliary ; as, " He 
never has been at court ; but it is more correctly and elegantly 
placed after the first auxiliary ; as, " He has never been at court." 
"He has never been intoxicated." This word has a peculiar 
use in the phrase, " Ask me never so much dowry." Gen. xxxiv. 
" The voice of charmers charming never so wisely." Psalm lviii. 
The sense is, " Ask me so much dowry as never was asked be- 
fore" — an abbreviation singularly expressive of the idea of ask- 
ing to any ajnount or extent. Authors not understanding it, 
have substituted ever for never, which impairs the force, if it 
does not destroy the sense of the phrase. The use of both is 
now common, but never is preferable ; as, " Some agreements 
indeed, though never so expressly made, are deemed of so im- 
portant a nature, that they ought not to rest in verbal promise 
only." Black. Com. B. 3. ch. 9. (See Web. Gram. p. 133.) 

Rem. 5. When an adverb modifies a verb in the infinitive 
mode, it should never be placed between the to and the verb ; 
as, "He told him to carefully observe the conduct of men ;" bet- 
ter thus : He told him to observe carefully the conduct of men. 

False Syntax. 

He was pleasing not often, because lie was vain. We may 
happily live, though our possessions are small. From whence 



190 §267. Syntax— rules. 

we may date likewise the period of this event. It cannot be 
impertinent or ridiculous therefore to remonstrate. He offered 
an apology, which not being admitted, he became submissive. 
Unless he have more government of himself, he will be always 
discontented. He was determined to invite back the king, and 
to call together his friends. My opinion was given on rather a 
cursory perusal of the book. Not only he found her well em- 
ployed, but pleased and tranquil also. It is too common with 
mankind, to be engrossed and overcome totally, by present 
events. When the Romans were pressed with a foreign ene- 
my, the women contributed all their rings and jewels volunta- 
rily, to assist the government. They could not persuade him, 
though they were never so eloquent. He drew up a petition 
where he too freely represented his own merits. His follies 
had reduced him to a situation where he had much to fear and 
nothing to hope. Charles left the seminary too early, since 
when, he has made very little improvement. Nothing is better 
worth the while of young persons, than the acquisition of 
knowledge and virtue. 

Rule XXXIV. 

§ 267. Two negatives in the same proposition, de- 
stroy each other, or are equivalent to an affirmative. 
One only, therefore should be used ; as, " Nor* did they 
not perceive them," i, e. they did perceive them. This 
is not generally a happy mode of expression. Many 
vulgar phrases are used from not observing the above 
rule ; as, "He did not owe nothing" "He did not 
do nothing" " He don't know nothing" The use 
of such expressions should be carefully avoided. 

Remark. When one of the negatives is joined to another 
word, the two negatives form a pleasing and delicate variety of 
expression ; as, " He is not unwilling to labor." 

False Syntax. 

Neither riches, nor honors, nor no such perishing goods, can 
satisfy the desires of an immortal spirit. We need not, nor do 
not, confine his operations to narrow limits. I am resolved not 
to comply with the proposal, neither at present, nor at any fu- 
ture time. Do not interrupt me yourselves, nor let no one dis* 



§ 268. Syntax— rules. 191 

turb my retirement. The measure is so exceptionable, that we 
cannot by no means permit it. I have received no information 
on the subject, neither from him, nor his friend. 

QUESTIONS ON THE ADVERBS. 

First Course. 

What do adverbs modify ? Where are adverbs generally 
placed ? What effect have two negatives in a sentence ? 

Second Course. 

What do the adverbs whence, hence and thence imply ? Are 
adverbs ever used as nouns ? Do adverbs sometimes modify 
verbs understood ? What sort of adverbs sometimes qualify 
two verbs ? How do adverbs sometimes acquire the nature of 
adjectives ? How is there often used ? Should adverbs be 
used as adjectives, and adjectives as adverbs ? How are nay, 
no, yea and yes used when construed as adverbs, and to what 
are they equivalent ? Should no be used instead of not for the 
purpose of modifying a verb ? Why are the adverbs no, nay, yes, 
yea and some others, sometimes repeated ? Are adverbs placed 
before adjectives or after them ? Do adverbs generally follow 
verbs and participles ? When an auxiliary verb and perfect parti- 
ciple are used, where is the adverb placed ? When adverbs are 
emphatical, how may they be arranged ? Where is always 
placed ? What is said of never ? When one of two negatives 
is joined to another word, what do the two negatives form ? 

Rule XXXV. 

<§> 268. Interjections are not dependent on other 
parts of speech ; as, " Oh ! virtue, how amiable thou 
art." 

Rem. 1. The interjections O ! Oh ! Ah ! are followed by the 
objective of a pronoun in the first person, without a governing 
word; as, " O! me? " Oh! me." "M! me." 

Rem. 2. Interjections may be placed before or after a simple 
sentence, and sometimes between its parts ; as, " Oh ! thou art 
cruel." 



192 § 269. Syntax — rules. 

False Syntax, 

Oh, my father! Oh, my friend ! how great has been my in- 
gratitude ! Oh, piety ! virtue ! how insensible have I been to 
your charms ? 

But him, the chieftain of them all, 
His sword hangs rusting on the wall. 

These all thy gifts and graces we display, 
Thee, only thee, directing all our way. 

QUESTIONS ON THE INTERJECTIONS. 

First Course. 
Are interjections dependent on other parts of speech ? 

Second Course. 

By what are the interjections O, Oh, Ah, followed ? Where 
are interjections placed ? 

Rule XXXVt 

§ 269. When supposition, suspension or doubt is 
denoted, the subjunctive mode should be used. 

Rem. 1. When a future doubtful action or state is expressed, 
the present subjunctive should be used ; as, " If his son ask 
bread, will he give him a stone ?" It is urged by Dr. Webster, 
that when a future contingent action is denoted, the auxiliaries 
shall, will or should is implied, and his reasoning appears cor- 
rect. 

Rem. 2. When a mere supposition with indefinite time is 
made, the imperfect subjunctive should be used; as, "if it were 
so, it would not be allowed." 

Rem. 3. The conjunctions if, though, unless, except and lest, 
require verbs in the subjunctive mode. 

Rem. 4. Verbs in the subjunctive mode, have two forms, the 
indicative, and the subjunctive. The indicative form of the 
subjunctive, has the same personal terminations as verbs of the 
indicative mode. The subjunctive form has personal termina- 
tions different from those of the indicative mode. Both forms 
are used by good authors. 



§ 269. Syntax— rules. 193 

QUESTIONS ON THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 

First Course. 
Repeat Rule. 

Second Course. 

When a future doubtful action is expressed, what tense of 
the subjunctive is used ? When a mere supposition with in- 
definite time is made, what tense of the subjunctive is used ? 
What mode do the conjunctions if, though, unless, except, and 
lest require ? What two forms have verbs in the subjunctive 
mode ? 

EXAMPLES IN PROSE. 

When Socrates was asked 1 what 2 man approached the near- 
est 3 to perfect happiness, he answered : " That 4 man who has 
the fewest wants." 

She 5 who studies her glass, neglects her heart. 

Between passion and lying, there 5 is not a finger's breadth. 

The 6 freer we feel ourselves in the presence of others, the 6 
more free are they ; he who is free, makes free. 

Addison has remarked, with equal piety and truth, "that 7 
the creation is a perpetual feast to the mind of a good man." 

He who shuts out all evasion when 8 he promises, loves truth. 

The laurels of the warrior are dyed in blood, and bedewed 
with the tears of the widow and the orphan. 

Between fame and true honor, a distinction is to be 9 made. 
The former 10 is a loud and noisy applause ; the latter 10 a more 
silent and internal homage. Fame floats on the breath of the 
multitude, honor rests on the judgment of the thinking. Fame 
may give praise while it withholds esteem ; true honor implies 
esteem mingled with respect. The one 11 regards particular 
distinguished talents ; the other looks up to the whole character. 

There is a certain species of religion, (if 12 we can give it that 
name,) which is placed wholly in speculation and belief; in the 

9 § 260. 

10 § 112. 

11 § 229, R, 15. 

12 § 185. 
17 



§ 126. 


5 § 265, R. 5. 


§ 238, R. 22. 


6 § 229, R. 3. 


§ 235, R. 10. 


7 § 187. 


§ 236. 


8 § 173, R. 5. 



194 § 269. Syntax — examples in prose, 

regularity of external homage ; or in fiery zeal about contested 
opinions. 

Xenophanes, who was reproached with being 1 timorous be- 
cause he would not venture his money in a game at dice, made „ 
this manly and sensible reply: "I confess I am exceedingly 
timorous ; for 2 I dare not commit an evil action." 

He loves nobly, (I speak of friendship,) who is not jealous 
when he has partners of love. 

Our happiness consists in the pursuit, much more than in the 
attainment of any temporal good. 

Let me repeat it ; — he only is great who 3 has the habits of 
greatness. 

Prosopopoeia, or personification 4 is a rhetorical figure, by 
which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects; as, 
" The ground thirsts for rain." " The earth smiles with plenty." 

The proper and rational conduct of men, with regard to futu- 
rity is regulated by two considerations ; first, that much of 
what it contains^ must remain to us absolutely unknown ; next, 
that there are also some events in it, which may be certainly 
known and foreseen. 

The gardens of the world produce only deciduous flowers, 
Perrenial ones 5 must be sought in the delightful regions above. 
Roses without thorns are the growth of paradise alone. 

How 6 many 7 rules and 8 maxims of life 9 might be spared 10 
could we fix 11 a principle of virtue within ; 12 and inscribe the 
living sentiment of the love of God in the affections! He 13 
who loves righteousness is master of all the distinctions in mo- 
rality. He who from the benignity of his nature erected this 
world for the abode of men ; he who furnished it so richly for 
our accommodation, and stored it with so much beauty for our 
entertainment; he, who since we first entered into life, hath 
followed us with such a 14 variety of mercies ; this amiable and 
beneficent being, surely 15 can have no pleasure in our disap- 
pointment and distress. 

He knows our frame ; he remembers we are dust ; and looks 
to frail man, we are assured, with such pity as a father beareth 
to his children. 



* § 247, R. 2. 


6 § 265. 


11 § 140, R. 10. 


2 § 186. 


7 §81. 


12 § 258, R. 5. 


3 § 248. 


8 § 264. 


13 § 93, R. 5. 


^ § 234, R. 6. 


9 § 54, R. 3. 


14 § 229, R. 7. 


* § 110, R. 1. 


10 § 140. 


15 § 266, R. 2. 



§ 269. Syntax — examples in prose. 195 

One 1 of the first lessons both^ of religion and 2 of wisdom, is 
to moderate 3 our expectations and hopes ; and not to set 3 forth 
on the voyage of life, like men, 4 who expect to be always car- 
ried 5 forward with a favorable gale. Let us be satisfied if the 
path we tread be easy 6 and smooth, 6 though it be not strewed 
with flowers. 

Providence never intended, that the art of living 7 happily in 
this world should depend on that deep penetration, that acute 
sagacity, and those refinements of thought, which few possess. 
It has dealt more graciously with us ; and made happiness de- 
pend on uprightness of intention, much more than on extent of 
capacity. 

Most of our passions flatter us in their rise. But their be- 
ginnings are treacherous ; their growth is imperceptible ; and 
the evils which they carry in their train lie concealed, until 
their dominion is established. What Solomon says of one of 
them holds true of them all, " that then* beginning is, as when 
one letteth out water." It issues from a small chink, which 
once might have been easily stopped ; but being neglected it 
soon widened by the stream; till the bank is at last totally 
thrown down, and the flood ie at liberty to deluge the whole 
plain. 

Prosperity debilitates instead of strengthening the mind. Its 
most common effect is, to create an extreme sensibility to the 
slightest wound. It foments impatient desires ; and raises ex- 
pectations which no success can satisfy. It fosters a false deli- 
cacy, which sickens in the midst of indulgence. By repeated 
gratification it blunts the feelings of men to what is pleasing ; 
and leaves them unhappily acute to whatever is uneasy* 

Hence 8 the gale which another would scarcely feel, is to the 
prosperous a rude tempest. Hence 8 the rose-leaf doubled be- 
low them on the couch, as it is told of the effeminate Sybarite, 
breaks their rest. Hence the disrespect shown by Mordecai 
preyed with such violence on the heart of Haman. 

Anxiety is the poison of human life. It is the parent of many 
sins and more miseries. In a world where everything is so 
doubtful ; where we may succeed in our wish and be misera- 
ble ; where we may be disappointed 9 and blest in the disap- 
pointment, what mean this restless stir and commotion of 

1 6 235, R. 4, & 5. 4 § 258, R. 4. 7 § 247. R. 2, & 3. 

2 § 182, R. 3. 5 § 260, y § 265, R. 1. 

* § 262, R. & 245. 6 § 235, R. 15. 9 § 133, & 132, R. 1. 



196 §269. Syntax — examples in prose. 

mind ? Can our solicitude alter the course or unravel the in- 
tricacy of human events ? Can our curiosity pierce through 
the cloud which the Supreme Being hath made impenetrable 
to mortal eye ? No situation is so remote, and no station so 
unfavorable as to preclude access to the happiness of a future 
state. A road is opened by the Divine Spirit, to those blissful 
habitations, from all corners of the earth, and from all condi- 
tions of human life ; from the peopled city, and from the soli- 
tary desert ; from the cottages of the poor ; and from the pala- 
ces of kings ; from the dwellings of ignorance and simplicity, 
and from the regions of science and improvement. 

The scenes which present themselves 1 at our entering upon 
the world are commonly flattering. Whatever 2 they be in them- 
selves, the lively spirits of the young, gild every opening pros- 
pect. The field of hope appears to stretch wide 3 before them. 
Pleasure seems to put forth its blossoms on every side. Im- 
pelled 4 by desire, forward they rush with inconsiderate ardor ; 
prompt 4 to decide and to choose ; averse to hesitate or inquire ; 
credulous, because 5 untaught by experience ; rash, because un- 
acquainted with danger ; headstrong, because unsubdued by 
disappointment. Hence arise the perils to which they are ex- 
posed, and which, too often, 6 from want of attention to faithful 
admonition, precipitate them into ruin irretrievable. 

By the unhappy excesses of irregular pleasure in youth, how 7 
many amiable dispositions are corrupted or destroyed ! How 
many rising capacities and powers are suppressed ! How 
many flattering hopes of parents and friends are totally 8 extin- 
guished ? Who 9 but must drop a tear over human nature, 
when 10 he beholds that morning which arose so bright, overcast 
with such untimely darkness ; that sweetness of temper which 
once engaged many hearts, that modesty which was so prepos- 
sessing, those abilities which promised extensive usefulness, all 
sacrificed at the shrine of low sensuality ; and one, who was 
formed for passing through life in the midst of public esteem, 
cut off by his vices, at the beginning of his course ; or sunk for 
the whole of it, into insignificance and contempt ? These, O 11 
sinful pleasure ! 12 are thy trophies. It is thus 13 that, cooperat- 

1 § 98 6 § 173,6. » § 268, 

2 § 106, R. 7 & 10. 7 § 174, 4, R. 2. 12 § 233, R. 2. 

3 § 235, R. 13. 8 § 176, 1. l3 § 174. 4. 

* § 247. 9 § 242, R. 6. 

* § 186. 10 § 173, 5. 



§ 269. Syntax — examples in poetry. 197 

ing with the foe of God and man, thou degradest human honor 
and blastest the opening 1 prospects of human felicity. 

To a Butterfly. 

Stay 2 near me 3 — do 2 not take thy flight ! 
A little longer stay in sight ! 
Much converse do I find in thee, 
Historian 4 of my infancy ! 

Float near me ; 3 do not yet 5 depart ! 

Dead times revive in thee : 

Thou bringest, gay creature 4 as thou art, 

A solemn image to my heart, 

My father's family ! 4 

Oh ! pleasant, pleasant, were the days 

The time when in our childish plays, 

My sister Emmeline 4 and I 

Together 6 chased the butterfly I 

A very hunter 4 did I rush 

Upon 7 the prey : — with 7 leaps and springs 

I followed on from 7 brake to bush ; 

But she, God love her ! feared to brush 

The dust from off its wings. 

Dear native regions, 8 I foretell, 
From what I feel at this farewell, 
That wheresoe'er 9 my steps may tend 
And whensoe'er 10 my course shall end, 
If in that hour a single tie 
Survive of local sympathy, 
My soul will cast the backward view, 
The longing look alone on you. 

Thus from the precincts of the west, 

The sun, when sinking down to rest, 

Though 11 his departing radiance fail 

To illuminate the hollow vale, 

A lingering lustre fondly throws 

On the dear mountain -tops where first he rose. 

1 § 235, R. h 5 § 184, R. 2. 9 § 175,1. 

2 § 136, R, 1. « $ 174,4. 10 § 173,5. 

3 § 253, R. 4. 7 § 179, R. 2. » § 185, 
* § 234. « § 233, R. 2. 

17* 



198 § 269. Syntax — exercises. 

'Tis 1 eight-o'clock, — a clear March night, 
The moon is up — the sky is blue, 
The owlet, in the moonlight air, 
Shouts, from nobody knows where ; 
He lengthens out his lonely shout, 
Halloo ! halloo ! a long halloo ! 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

Extract from Robert HalVs Sermon on the Death of Rev. John Ry- 

land,J). D. 

It 2 has been alleged by unbelievers as a defect in the morality 
of the gospel, that it neglects to inculcate patriotism and friend- 
ship. In regard to the first of these, it seems a sufficient reply, 
that, 3 though 4 an attachment to our country, as such, is not ex- 
pressly enjoined in the New Testament, the duties which re- 
sult from the relation in which Christians stand to their rulers, 
are prescribed with great perspicuity, and enforced by very 
solemn sanctions ; and if the reciprocal duties of princes and 
magistrates are not enjoined with equal explicitness, (as could 
not be expected in writings where they are not addressed,) the 
design of their appointment is defined in such a manner as 
leaves them at no loss to perceive what 5 it is that 3 they owe to 
the community. But 6 where these duties are faithfully dis- 
charged by each party, the benefits derived from the social com- 
pact are so 7 justly 7 appreciated and so deeply felt, that the love 
of country is less liable 8 to defect than 9 to excess. In all well- 
ordered polities, if we may judge from the experience of past 
ages, the attachment of men to their country, is in danger of 
becoming an all-absorbing 10 principle, inducing not merely a 
forge tfulness of private interest, but of the immutable claims 
of humanity and justice. In the most virtuous times of the 
Roman republic, their country was the idol, at whose 11 shrines 
her greatest patriots were at all times prepared to offer whole 
hecatombs of human victims ; the interests of other nations 
were no further regarded than as they could be rendered sub- 
servient to the gratification of her ambition ; and mankind at 
large were considered as possessing but such as might, with the 
utmost propriety, be merged in that devouring vortex. With all 






1 § 238, R.4,&§ 92, R. 1. 


5 § 238, R. 1. 


9 § 264. 


2 § 238, R. 4. 


6 § 184. 


10 § 77. 


3 § 187. 


7 § 176, R. 1. 


11 § 118. 


4 § 185. 


8 § 88. 





§ 269. Syntax — exercises. 199 

their talents and their grandeur, they were unprincipled op- 
pressors, leagued in a determined conspiracy against the liberty 
and independence of mankind. In the eyes of an enlightened 
philanthropist, patriotism, pampered to such an excess, loses the 
name of virtue ; it is the bond and cement of a guilty confedera- 
tion. It was worthy of the wisdom of our great legislator to 
decline the express inculcation of a principle so liable to de- 
generate into excess, and to content himself with prescribing 
the virtues which are sure to develope it as far as is consistent 
with the dictates of universal benevolence. 

The second 1 part of the objection to which we have alluded 
is susceptible of a similar answer. Let it be admitted that our 
Lord did not formally prescribe the cultivation of friendship ; 
and what then : 2 He prescribed the virtues out of which it 
will naturally grow ; he prescribed the cultivation of benevo- 
lence in all its diversified modes of operation. In his personal 
ministry and in that 3 of his apostles, he enjoined humility, for- 
bearance, gentleness, kindness, and the most tender sympathy 
with the infirmities and distresses of our fellow-creatures ; and 
his whole life was a transcript of these virtues. But these, in 
the ordinary course of events, and under the usual arrangements 
of Providence, are the best preparation for friendship, as well 
as 4 the surest guarantee for the discharge of its duties, and the 
observance of its rights. For such is the secret affinity of mind 
to mind, such the social constitution of man, that he who is im- 
bued with these dispositions can scarcely fail, in the pilgrimage 
of life, to contract a friendship with one or more of his spe- 
cies. Accustomed to look upon the whole human family with 
a benign aspect, some members of it will attract more of his 
attention, and awaken more of his complacency, than others ; 
where their virtues are equal, some more than ordinary conge- 
niality of taste and temper, will form a basis of preference, a 
motive for predilection ; which, confirmed by habit, and 
strengthened by the reciprocal exchange of gratifying attentions 
and kind offices, will at length ripen into friendship, A mind 
habitually tender, easily melts into sofrness, and exchanges the 
sentiments of esteem for those of specific attachment and en- 
dearment. What is friendship in virtuous minds but 6 the con- 
centration of benevolent emotions, heightened by respect, and 
increased by exercise on one or more objects ? Friendship is 
not a state of feeling, whose elements are specifically different 

1 § 73, R. 1,1, 3 § 112. ~ 5 § 259, R. 3. 

2 § 187. * § 177. e § 179, R. 2. 



200 §269. Syntax— exercises* 

from those which compose every other. The emotions we feel to- 
wards a friend, are the same in kind with those we experience 
on other occasions ; but they are more complex and more ex- 
alted. It is the general sensibility to kind and social affections, 
more immediately directed to one or more individuals, and in 
consequence of its particular direction giving birth to an order 
of feeling more vivid and intense than usual, which constitutes 
friendship. Hence we perceive the impropriety of making 1 it 
the subject of legislation. It is the duty of every man to culti- 
vate the dispositions which lead to friendship, the love of his 
species, admiration of virtue, regard to the feelings of others, 
gratitude, humility, along with the most inflexible adherence to 
probity and truth. Wherever these exist, friendship will be 
the natural result ; but it will result as a felicity rather than as a 
duty ; and is to be placed among the rewards of virtue rather 
than its obligations. Happiness is not to be prescribed, but to 
be enjoyed ; and such is the benevolent arrangement of Divine 
Providence, that whenever there is a moral preparation for it, 
it follows of course ; and such are the pleasures and advan- 
tages derived from virtuous friendship. Its duties, supposing it 
to be formed, are deducible, with sufficient certainty and pre- 
cision, from the light of nature and the precepts of Scripture, 
and none more sacred ; but in the act of forming it, the mind 
disdains the fetters of prescriptions, and is left to be deter- 
mined by the impulse of feeling and the operation of events. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

We the people 2 of the United States, 3 in order to form a 
more perfect union, establish justice, ensure domestic tranquili- 
ty, provide for the common defence, promote the general wel- 
fare and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our 
posterity, do 4 ordain and establish this Constitution for the 
United States of America. 

Article I. 

Sect 1. All legislative powers herein 5 granted shall be vest- 
ed in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of 
a Senate 2 and House 2 of Representatives. 

Sect 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed 6 of 

1 § 40. 3 § 36. 5 § 177, R. 3. 

2 § 39. * §i5^R, 2. € § 125, and R. 8. 



§ 269. Syntax — exercises. 201 

members chosen every second year, by the people of the seve- 
ral States ; and the Electors in each State shall have the quali- 
fications requisite for Electors of the most numerous branch of 
the State Legislature. 

No person shall be a Representative, who shall not have at- 
tained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years 1 a 
citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, 
be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 

Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among 
the several States, which may be included within this Union, 
according to their respective numbers, which shall be deter- 
mined by adding to the whole number of free persons, includ- 
ing those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding 
Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual 
enumeration shall be made within three years after the first 
meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every 
subsequent term of ten years, in such a manner as they shall 
by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not ex- 
ceed one for every thirty thousand ; but each State shall have at 
least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be 
made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose 
three, Massachusetts eight, R' ode IslarJ and Providence Plan- 
tations one, Connecticut five, i x jrk six, New Jersey four, 
Pennsylvania eight, Delaware o. Maryland six, Virginia ten, 
North Carolina iive, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 

When vacancies happen in the representation from any 
State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of elec- 
tion to fill such vacancies. 

The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and 
other officers, and shall have sole power of impeachment. 

Sect. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed 
of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature 
thereof 2 , for six years, and each Senator shall have one vote. 

Immediately after they shall be assembled, in consequence 
of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be 
into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class 
shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year ; of the 
second class, at the expiration of the fourth year ; and of the 
third class, at the expiration of the sixth year ; so that 3 one third 
may be chosen every second year ; and if vacancies happen by 
resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the Legislature 

1 § 236. 2 § 177, R. 3. 3 § 187, R. 1. 



202 § 269. Syntax — exercises. 

of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary ap- 
pointments, until the next meeting of the Legislature, which 
shall then fill such vacancies. No person shall be a Senator, who 
shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been 
nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, 
when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall 
be chosen. 

The Vice President of the United States shall be President 
of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally 
divided. 

The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a 
President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or 
when he shall exercise the office of President of the United 
States. 

The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeach- 
ments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath 
or affirmation. 

When the President of the United States is tried, the chief 
Justice shall preside ; and no person shall be convicted, with- 
out the concurrence of two thirds of the members present. 

Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend fur- 
ther than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold 
and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit, under the United 
States ; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and 
subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment accord- 
ing to law. 

Sect 4. The times, places and manner of holding elections 
for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each 
State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may, at any 
time, py law, make or alter such regulations, except as to 1 the 
places of choosing Senators. 

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and 
such meetings shall be on the first Monday in December, un- 
less the}^ shall by law appoint a different day. 

Sect 5. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, re- 
turns and qualifications of its own members ; and a majority of 
each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller num- 
number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized 
to compel the attendance of absent members, in such a manner 
and under such penalties as each House may provide. 

Each House may determine the rules of its procedings, pun- 

~~ *§ 179, 



§ 269. Syntax — exercises. 203 

ish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concur- 
rence of two thirds, expel a member. 

Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from 
time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in 
their judgment require secrecy ; and the yeas 1 and nays 1 of 
the members of either House, on any question, shall at the de- 
sire of one fifth 2 of those present, be entered on the journal. 

Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall with- 
out the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, 
nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall 
be sitting. 

Sect. 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a 
compensation for their services to be ascertained by law, and 
paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall, in 
all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, 
be privileged from arrests during their attendance at the ses- 
sion of their respective Houses, and in going to or returning 
from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either House 
they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

No Senator or Representative shall, during 3 the time for 
which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under 
the authority of the United States, which shall have been cre- 
ated, or the emoluments whereof 4 shall have been increased 
during such time ; and no person holding any office under the 
United States, shall be a member of either House during his 
continuance in office. 

Sect. 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives ; but 5 the Senate may propose or 
concur with amendments as 6 on other bills. 

Every 7 bill, which shall have passed 8 the House of Repre- 
sentatives and Senate, shall, before it becomes a law, be pre- 
sented to the President of the United States; if 9 he approve, 
he shall sign it ; but, if not, shall return it, with his objections, 
to that 10 House in which it shall have originated, who 11 shall en- 
ter the objections at large on its journal, and proceed to recon- 
sider it. If, after such 12 reconsideration, two thirds 13 of that 
House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together 14 with 
the objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be 



1 § 265, R. 2. 


5 § 184. 


9 § 185. 


13 § 54, R. 19. 


2 § 235, R. 3. 


6 § 177. 


10 § 74. 


" § 179, R. 2. 


3 § 179, R. 9. 


7 § 75. 


11 § 238, R. 21. 




4 § 177, R. 3. 


8 § 145. 


12 § 76, and R. 2. 





204 § 269. Syntax — exercises. 

reconsidered, and, if approved by two thirds of that House, it 
shall become a law. But in all such cases, the votes of both 
Houses shall be determined by yeas 1 and nays, 1 and the names 
of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered 
on the journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not 
be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays* 2 except- 
ed) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be 
a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Con- 
gress, by their adjournment, prevent its return, in which 3 case, 
it shall not be a law. 

Every order, resolution or vote, to which the concurrence of 
the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary, 
(except on a question of adjournment,) shall be presented to the 
President of the United 4 States ; and, before the same 5 shall 
take effect, shall be approved, or, being disapproved by him, 
shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of 
Representatives, according to the rules and limitations pre- 
scribed in case of a bill. 

Sect 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect 
taxes, duties, imposts, and excises ; to pay the debts of the 
United States ; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uni- 
form throughout the United States ; — to borrow money on the 
credit of the United States ; — to regulate commerce with foreign 
nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian 
tribes ; — to establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uni- 
form laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United 
States ; — to coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of for- 
eign coin, and to fix the standard of weights and measures ; — 
to provide for the punishment of counterfeiting 6 the securities 
and current coin of the United States; — to establish post offices 
and post roads ; — to promote the progress of science and use- 
ful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors, 
the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries ; 
— to constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; — to 
define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high 
seas, and offences against the law of nations ; — to declare war, 
grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concern- 
ing 7 captures on land and water; — to raise and support armies ; 
but 8 no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer 



1 § 265, R. 2. 

2 § 232. 

3 § 103, R. 3. 


4 § 36, R. l.&§42. 

5 § 110. R. 11. 

6 § 247, R. 2, & 3. 


7 § 179. 

8 § 184. 



§ 269. Syntax — exercises. 205 

term than two years ;*— to provide and maintain a navy ; — to 
make rules for the government and regulation of the land and 
naval forces ; — to provide for calling forth the militia to execute 
the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel inva- 
sions ; — to provide for organizing, arming and disciplining the 
militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employ- 
ed 2 in the service of the United States, reserving to the States, 
respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority 
of training the militia, according 3 to the discipline prescribed 
by Congress ; — to exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases 
whatsoever, 4 over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) 
as 5 may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of 
Congress, become the seat of government of the United States, 
and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by con- 
sent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, 
for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and 
other needful buildings ; — and to make all laws which shall be 
necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing 
powers, and all other powers vested by this constitution in the 
government of the United States, or in any department or office 
thereof. 

Sect. 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any 
of the States now existing, shall think proper to admit, shall 
not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thou- 
sand eight hundred and eight ; but a tax or duty may be im- 
posed on importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each per- 
son. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be 
suspended, 6 unless 7 when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the 
public safety may require it. 

No bill of attainder or ex post facto 8 law shall be passed. 

No capitation, or other direct tax, shall be laid, unless in 
proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed 
to be taken. 

No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any 
State. 

No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce 
or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor 
shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, 
clear, or pay duties in another. 



? §231, 


R. 


3. 


4 § 106, 


R. 


11. 


7 § 


185. 


2 § 140, 


R. 


4. 


* § 104, 


R. 


6. 


8 $ 


77. 


3 § 179, 


R. 


4. 


6 § 152, 


R. 


3. 







18 



206 § 269. Syntax — exercises. 

No money shall be drawn from the treasury but 1 in conse- 
quence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular state- 
ment and account of the receipts and expenditures of all pub- 
lic money shall be published from time to time. 

No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; 
and no person, holding any office of profit or trust under them, 
shall without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, 
emolument, office or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, 
prince or foreign state. 

Sect. 10. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or 
confederation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin 
money; emit bills of credit; make anything but 2 gold and sil- 
ver coin a tender, in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attain- 
der, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of con- 
tracts, or grant any title of nobility. No State shall, without 
the consent of Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports 
or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for exe- 
cuting its inspection ; and the net produce of all duties and im- 
posts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the 
use of the treasury of the United States ; and all such law T s shall 
be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No 
State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of 
tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter in- 
to any agreement or compact with another State, or with a for- 
eign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in 
such immediate danger as will not admit of delay. 

Article II. 

Sect. 1. The executive authority shall be vested in a Presi- 
dent of the United States of America. He shall hold his office 
during the term of four years, and together with 3 the Vice 
President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : 

Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature 
thereof may direct, a number of Electors equal to the whole 
number of Senators and Representatives to which the State 
may be entitled in the Congress ; but no Senator or Repre- 
sentative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the 
United States, shall be appointed an Elector. 

The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote 
by ballot for two persons, of whom one, at least, shall not be an 

1 § 185. 2 §179 ? r. 2. 3 § 179, R. 4. 



§ 269. Syntax — exercises. 207 

inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall 
make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of 
votes for each ; which list they shall sign and certify, and trans- 
mit, sealed, to the seat of the government of the United States, 
directed to the President of the Senate. And the President of 
the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and the House of 
Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall 
then be counted. The person having the greatest number of 
votes shall be the President, if such a number be a majority of 
the whole number of Electors appointed; and if there be more 
than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of 
votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately 
choose by ballot, one of them for President ; and if no such 
person have a majority, then, from the five highest on the list, 
the said House shall in like manner choose the President. But 
in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the 
representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for 
this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two 
thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be 
necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the 
President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the 
Electors, shall be the Vice President. But if there should re- 
main two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose 
from them, by ballot, the Vice President. 

The Congress may 1 determine the time of choosing the 
Electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes ; 
which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 

In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his 
death, resignation or inability to discharge the powers and du- 
ties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice Presi- 
dent ; and the Congress may, by law, provide for the case of re- 
moval, death, resignation or inability, both of the President and 
Vice President, declaring what officer shall then act as Presi- 
dent ; and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability 
be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services 
a compensation which shall neither be increased nor dimin- 
ished during the period for which he shall have been elected ; 
and he shall not receive within that period, any other emolu- 
ments from the United States, or any of them. 



1 5 152, R. 5, 



208 § 269. Syntax — exercises. 

Before he enter upon the execution of his office, he shall 
take the following oath or affirmation : 

"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute 
the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best 
of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of 
the United States." 

Sect. 2. The President shall be commander in chief of the 
army and the navy of the United States, and of the militia of the 
several States when called into the actual service of the United 
States. He may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal 
officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject 
relating to the duties of their respective offices ; and he shall 
have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against 
the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators pres- 
ent concur ; and he shall nominate, and, by and with the consent 
of the Senate shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers 
and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers 
of the United States, whose appointments are not herein other- 
wise provided for, and which shall be established by law. But 
the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such infe-" 
rior officers as they think proper, in the President alone, in the 
courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that 
may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting com- 
missions which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

Sect 3. He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress in- 
formation of the state of the Union, and recommend to their 
consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and 
expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both 
houses, or either 1 of them, and in case of disagreement between 
them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn 
them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive 
ambassadors, and other public ministers ; shall take care that 
the laws be faithfully executed, and he shall commission all the 
officers of the United States. 

Sect 4. The President, Vice President, and all civil officers 
of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeach- 
ment for and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes 
and misdemeanors. 

1 § 114, R. 4. 



§ 269. Synyax EXERCISES. 209 



Article III. 

Sect. 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested 
in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as Congress 
may, from time to time, ordain and establish. The Judges, 
botl) of the Supreme and Inferior Courts, shall hold their of- 
fices during good behavior ; and shall, at stated times, receive 
for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished 
during their continuance in office. 

Sect. 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law 
and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the 
United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under 
their authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public 
ministers and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty and maritime 
jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the United States shall 
be a party ; to controversies between two or more States, be- 
tween a State and citizens of another State, between citizens of 
different States, between citizens of the same State claiming 
lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or 
the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens or subjects. 

In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and 
consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Su- 
preme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other 
cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate 
jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and 
under such regulations as the Congress shall make. 

The trial' of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall 
be by jury, and such trial shall be held in the State where the 
said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed 
within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as 
the Congress may by law have directed. 

Sect. 3. Treason against the United States shall consist only 
in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, 
giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of 
treason, unless on testimony of two witnesses to the same overt 
act, or on confession in open court. 

The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of 
treason ; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of 
blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person at- 
tainted. 

18* 



210 § 269. Syntax — exercises. 



Article IV. 

Sect 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to 
the public acts, records and judicial proceedings of every other 
State. And the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe, the 
manner in which such acts, records and proceedings shall be 
proved, and the effect thereof. 

Sect 2. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all 
privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

A person charged in any State with treason, felony or other 
crime, who shall flee from justice and be found in another 
State, shall on demand of the executive authority of the State 
from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State 
having jurisdiction of the crime. 

No person held to service or labor in one State, under the 
laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any 
law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or 
labor ; but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom 
such service or labor may be due. 

Sect 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into 
the Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within 
the jurisdiction of any other State, nor any State be formed by 
the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without 
the consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned, as well 
as of the Congress. 

The Congress shall have power to dispose of, and make all 
needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other 
property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this 
Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of 
the United States, or of any particular State. 

Sect 4. The United States shall guaranty to every State in 
this Union a republican form of government ; and shall protect 
each of them from invasion ; and, on application of the Legis- 
lature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be 
convened), against domestic violence. 

Article V. 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall 
deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitu- 
tion, or, on application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the 
several States, shall call a convention for proposing amend- 



§ 269. Syntax — exercises. 211 

ments, which in either case, shall be valid, to all intents and 
purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the 
Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by con- 
ventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode 
of ratification may be proposed by Congress ; provided, that no 
amendment, which may be made prior to the year one thousand 
eight hundred and eight, shall in any manner affect the first 
and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and 
that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal 
suffrage in the Senate. 

Article VL 

All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before 
the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the 
United States under this Constitution, as under the Confedera- 
tion. 

This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States, which 
shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or 
which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, 
shall be the supreme Law of the land ; and the judges, in every 
State, shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or 
Laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 

The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the 
members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and 
judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several 
States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this 
Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a 
qualification to any office or public trust under the United 
States. 

Article VIL 

The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be 
sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the 
States so ratifying the same. 

Done in Convention, by the unanimous consent of the States pres- 
ent, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord, one 
thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Indepen- 
dence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness 
whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. 

GEORGE WASHINGTON, President, 

And Deputy from Virginia. 



212 



§ 269. Syntax — exercises. 



Pennsylvania, 



Delaware, 



Maryland, . . 
Virginia, . . . 
North Carolina, , 

South Carolina, , 
Georgia, . . . 



*/• TT t. ( John Langdon, 

New Hampshire, .... < ^ T ■ ~ ' - 

^ ( Nicholas Gilman. 

Massachusetts i Nathaniel Gorham, 

( Rufus King. 

g^ ,. . ( William Samuel Johnson* 

Connecticut, ..... < -^ ~ 

( KOGER ©HERMAN. 

New York, . Alexander Hamilton. 

f William Livingston, 

x/ , T j David B re arly, 

New Jersey, < ,,, ^ 

y \ William Tatters on, 

^Jonathan Dayton. 

r Benjamin Franklin, 
Thomas Mifflin, 
Robert Morris, 
George Clymer, 
Thomas Fitzsimons, 
Jared Ingersol, 
James Wilson, 
gouverneur morris. 

f George Reed, 
I Gunning Bedford, Jr. 
<! John Dickenson, 
Richard Basset, 
I Jacob Broom. 

C James M'Henry, 

< Daniel of St. Th : Jenifer, 
( Daniel Carrol. 

< John Blair, 
\ James Madison, Jr. 

C William Blount, 

< Richard Dobbs Spaight, 
( Hugh Williamson. 

John Rdtledge, 
Charles C. Pinckney, 
Charles Pinckney, 
Pierce Butler. 

William Few, 
Abraham Baldwin. 



Attest, 



WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. 



§ 269. Syntax — exercises. 213 

Amendments to the Constitution. 

Article I. 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of 
religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging 
the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the peo- 
ple peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for 
a redress of grievances. 

Article IT. 

A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a 
free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall 
not be infringed. 

Article III. 

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house 
without the consent of the owner ; nor in time of war, but in a 
manner to be perscribed by law. 

Article IV. 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, 
papers and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, 
shall not be violated ; and no warrants shall issue, but upon 
probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particu- 
larly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or 
things to be seized. 

Article V. 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise 
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a 
grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, 
or in the militia, when in actual service, in time of war or pub- 
lic danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence 
to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be com- 
pelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness against himself, nor 
be deprived of life, liberty or property, without due process of 
law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use witheut 
just compensation. 

Article VI. 
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right 



214 § 269. Syntax — exercises. 

to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State 
and District wherein the crime shall have been committed, 
which District shall have been previously ascertained by law ; 
and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; 
and to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have 
compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to 
have the assistance of counsel for his defence. 

Article VII. 

In suits at common law, when the value in controversy shall 
exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be pre- 
served; and no fact, tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-ex- 
amined in any court of the United States, than according to the 
rules of common law. 

Article VIII. 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines im- 
posed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

Article IX. 

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall 
not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the 
people. 

Article X. 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Con- 
stitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the 
States respectively, or to the people. 

Article XL 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be con- 
strued to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or 
prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of an- 
other State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. 

Article XII. 

The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote 
by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at 
least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with them- 
selves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as 



§ 269. Syntax — exercises. 215 

President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice- 
President ; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons 
voted for as President, and distinct lists of all persons voted 
for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each ; 
which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to 
the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the 
president of the Senate. The president of the Senate shall, in 
the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open 
all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; the 
person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall 
be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole 
number of electors appointed; and if no person have such ma- 
jority, then, from the persons having the highest numbers, not 
exceeding three, on the list of those voted for as President, the 
House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, 
the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall 
be taken by States, the representation from each State having 
one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member 
or members from two thirds of the States, and a majority of all 
the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of 
Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right 
of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of 
March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as 
President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional 
disability of the President. 

The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice- 
President, shall be the Vice-President, if such a number be a 
majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no 
person have a majority, then, from the two highest numbers on 
the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a quorum 
for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the whole num- 
ber of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be 
necessary to a choice. 

But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of Pres- 
ident, shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United 
States. 



Tired nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep I 1 
He, like the world, 2 his ready visit pays, 
Where fortune smiles ; the wretched he forsakes. 
Swift on his downy pinion flies from wo, 

1 § 234, R. 1. 2 §258, R. 4. 



216 § 269. Syntax — exercises. 

And lights on lids unsullied with a tear. 

From short (as usual) and disturbed repose 

I wake ; how happy they who wake no more ! 

Yet that 1 were vain if dreams infest the grave, 

I wake, emerging from a sea of dreams 

Tumultuous, when my wrecked desponding thought 

From wave to wave of fancied misery 

At random drove, her helm of reason lost. 

Though now restored 'tis only change of pain 

(A bitter change) 2 severer for severe ; 

The day too short for my distress ; and night, 

Ev'n in the zenith of her dark domain 

Is sunshine to the color of my fate. 

Night, sable goddess ! from her ebon throne, 

In rayless majesty now stretches forth 

Her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world. 

Silence how dread ! and darkness how profound ! 

Nor 3 eye nor listening ear an object finds. 

Creation sleeps. 'Tis as the general pulse 

Of life stood still, and nature made a pause ; 

An awful pause ! prophetic of her end, 

And let her prophecy be soon fulfilled ; 

Fate drop the curtain ; I can loose no more. 

Silence and darkness ! solemn sisters ! twins 

From ancient night, who nurse the tender thought 

To reason and on reason build resolve, 

That column of true majesty in man, 

Assist me ; I will thank you in the grave ; 

The grave, your kingdom, there this frame shall fall 

A victim sacred to your dreary shrine. 

But what are ye ? — 

Thou who didst put to flight 

Primeval silence when the morning stars 

Exulting shouted o'er the rising ball ; 

O thou, whose word from solid darkness struck 

That spark, the sun, strike wisdom from my soul. 

My soul which flies to thee, here trust 4 her treasure, 

As misers to their gold while others rest, 

Through this opaque of nature and of soul 

This double night, transmit one pitying ray 



§ 238, R. 5. 2 § 234, R. 3. 3 § 183. R 2. 4 § 134. 



§ 279. Syntax — exercises. 217 

To lighten and to cheer, O lead my mind 

(A mind 1 that fain would wander from its woe,) 

Lead it through various scenes of life and death, 

And from each scene the noblest truth- inspire 

Nor less inspire my conduct than my song ; 

Teach my best reason," 2 reason ; my best will 

Teach rectitude f and fix my firm resolve 

Wisdom to wed, and pay her long arrear ; 

Nor let the phial of thy vengeance, poured 

On this devoted head be poured in vain. 

The bell strikes one. We take no note of time 

But from its loss : to give 3 it then a tongue 

Is wise in man. As if, an angel spoke, 

I hear the solemn sound. If heard aright, 

It is the knell of my departed hours. 

Where are they ? With the years beyond the flood. 



Eve lamenting the loss of Paradise. 

O unexpected stroke, 4 worse than of death ! 
Must I thus leave thee Paradise ? 4 thus leave 
Thee native soil, 4 these happy walks and shades 
Fit haunt of Gods ? where I had hoped to spend 
Quiet, though sad, the respite of that day 
That must 5 be mortal to us both. O flowers 4 
That never will in other climate grow 
My early visitation and my last 
At even which I bred up with tender hand, 
From the first opening bud, and gave ye 6 names, 
Who now shall rear you to the sun, or rank 
Your tribes, and water from the ambrosial fount ? 
Thee lastly, nuptial bower, by me adorn'd 
With what to sight or smell was sweet, from thee 
How shall I part, and whither wander down 
Into a lower world ; to this obscure 7 
And wild ? how shall we breathe in other air 
Less pure, accustom'd to immortal fruits ? 



Soliliquy of Hamlet's Uncle. 
Oh ! my offence is rank, it smells to heaven ; 

1 § 134. 3 § 2 >2. 5 § 152, R. 7. ? § 235, R. 2. 

2 § 253. 4 § 233. 6 § 116, R. 4. 

19 



118 § 269. Syntax — exercises, 

It hath the primal eldest 1 curse upon't 

A brother's murder ! 2 Pray I cannot 

Though inclination be as sharp as 'twill, 

My stronger guilt defeats my strong intent : 

And like a man to double business bound 

I stand in pause what 1 shall first begin 

And both neglect. What if this cursed hand 

Were thicker than itself a with brother's blood ; 

Is there not rain enough in the sweet heavens 

To wash it white as snow ? 3 Whereunto serves merey y 

But 4 to confront 5 the visage of offence ! 

But what's in prayer, but 4 this two-fold force, 6 

To be forestalled, 5 ere we come to fall, 

Or pardon'd being down ? — Then I'll look up ; 

My fault is past. — But oh, what form of prayer 

Can serve my turn ? " Forgive me my foul murder L w 

That cannot be ; since I am still possess'd 

Of those effects 6 for which I did the murder, 

My crown, mine own ambition, and my queen. 

May one be pardon'd, and retain the offence ? 

In the corrupted currents of this world, 

Offence's gilded hand may shove by justice $ 

And oft 'tis seen, the wicked prize itself 

Buys out the law : but 'tis not so above ; 

There, is no shuffling; there, the action lies 

In his 7 true nature ; and we ourselves compell'd, 

Even to the teeth and forehead of our faults, 

To give in evidence. — What then ? — what rests ? 

Try w r hat repentance can : what can it not ? 

Yet what can it, when one cannot repent ? 

O wretched state ! oh bosom, black as death I 

Oh limed soul ; that, struggling to be free, 

Art more engag'd ! Help, angels ! make assay I 

Bow, stubborn knees ; and heart, with strings of steel, 

Be soft as sinews of the new-born babe 1 

All may be well. 



Last night 8 I was at Mrs. Boscawen's, where there was a 

1 § 235. 4 § 179, R. 2. 7 § 238, R. 9. 

2 § 449. 5 § 262. 8 § 250. 

3 § 242, R. 6. 6 § 234, R. 8. 



§ 269. Syntax — exercises. 219 

very splendid assembly. Lord 1 and Lady 1 Clifford, Mrs. Bou- 
verie, the Misses 2 Middleton and Beaufort, and the Miss 3 Wal- 
thams. 



To die 4 they say is noble — as a soldier — 

But with such guides to point th' unerring road 

Such able guides, such arms and discipline 

As I have had, my soul would sorely feel 

The dreadful pang which keen reflections give, 

Should she in death's dark porch, while life was ebbing 

Receive 5 the judgment, and this vile reproach, 

"Long hast thou wander'd in a stranger's land 

A stranger to thyself and to thy God ;" 



So judge thou still, presumptuous, till the wrath, 
Which thou incur' st by flying, meet thy flight 
Sev'n-fold, and scourge that wisdom back to hell, 
Which taught thee yet no better that no pain 
Can equal anger infinite provoked. 
But wherefore thou alone ? wherefore with thee 
Came not all hell broke loose ? Is pain to them 
Less pain, less to be fled ? or thou than they 
Less hardy to endure? Courageous chief! 
The first in flight from pain ! — hadst thou alleg'd 
To thy deserted host this cause of flight 
Thou surely hadst not come sole fugitive. 



To whom the warrior angel soon reply'd : 
To say, and straight unsay, pretending first 
Wise to fly pain, professing next the spy, 
Argues no leader, but a liar, trac'd, 
Satan ! — and couldst thou faithful add ? O name 6 
O sacred name 6 of faithfulness profan'd! 
Faithful to whom ? to thy rebellious crew ? 
Army of fiends ! — fit body 6 to fit head ! 
Was this your discipline and faith engag'd, 
Your military obedience, to dissolve 
Allegiance to th' acknowledg'd Power supreme ? 
And thou sly hypocrite, 6 who now wouldst seem 
Patron of liberty, who more than thou 

1 § 89, R. 8. 3 § 54, R. 23. 5 § 140, R. 10. 

2 § 54, R. 22. * § 262. 6 § 233. 



220 § 269. Syntax — exercises. 

Once fawn'd and cring'd, and servilely adored 

Heav'n's awful monarch ? wherefore but in hope 

To dispossess him, and thyself to reign ; 

But mark what I areed thee now ; avaunt I 1 

Fly thither whence thou fled'st ; if, from this hour 

Within these hallo w'd limits thou appear 

Back to th' infernal pit I drag thee chain'd 

And seal thee so, as henceforth not to scorn 

The facile gates of hell too slightly barr'd. — Milton* 



Uzziel ! half these draw off and coast the south 

With strictest watch ; these other wheel the north. — 

Ithuriel and Zephon ! with winged speed 

Search through this garden, leave unsearched no n ook, 

This evening from the sun's decline arriv'd 

Who tell of some infernal spirit seen 

Hither ward bent ; — 

Such when ye find, seize fast, and hither bring. — Milton. 



To be, 2 or not to be ? — that's the question. — 

Y/hether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer 2 

The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, 

Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, 

And by opposing, end them ? — To die 2 — to sleep 2 — 

No more, and by a sleep to say we end 2 

The heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks 

That flesh is heir to ? — 'tis 3 a consummation 

Devoutly to be wish'd. To die f — to sleep ; 2 — 

To sleep, 2 perchance to dream ; 2 — Ay, there's the rub ; 

For in that sleep of death what dreams may come, 

When we have shuffled off this mortal coil 

Must give us pause. There's the respect 

That makes calamity of so long life ; 

For who 4 would bear the whip and scorns of time, 

The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely, 

The pangs of despised love, the law's delay, 

The insolence of office and the spurns 

That patient merit of the unworthy takes ; 

When he himself might his quietus make 

With a bare bodkin ? who 4 would fardels bear 

§ 170. 2 § 260, R. 3. 3 § 238, R. 4. 4 § 93. 



§ 269. Syntax — exercises. 221 

To groan and sweat under a weary life ? 

But that 1 the dread of something after death, 

That undiscovered country from whose bourne 

No traveller returns, puzzles the will ; 

And makes us rather bear those ills we have, 

Than fly to others that we know not of, 2 

Thus conscience does make cowards of us all, — 

And thus the native hue of resolution 

Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought; 

And enterprises of great pith and moment 

With this regard their currents turn awry 

And lose the name of action. — Shakspeare. 



To-morrow, 3 didst 4 thou 5 say ? 

Methought 6 I heard Horatio say 7 to-morrow. 

Go 8 to 9 I will not hear of it 10 — to-morrow. 

'Tis a sharper, who stakes his penury 

Against thy plenty — who takes the ready cash 

And pays thee nought but wishes, hopes, and promises, 

The currency 11 of idiots — injurious bankrupt, 

That gulls the easy creditor ! — to-morrow ! 

It is a period no where to be found 

In all the hoary registers 11 of time 

Unless perchance in the fool's calendar. 

Wisdom 12 disclaims the word, nor holds society 

With those who own it. No, my Horatio, 

'Tis fancy's 12 child, and folly 12 is its father, 

Wrought of such stuff as dreams are, and as baseless 

As the fantastic visions of the evening. 

But soft, my friend — arrest the present moment 

For be assured, they all are arrant tell-tales ; 

And though their flight be silent and their path 

Trackless as the winged couriers of the air, 

They post to heaven and there record thy folly 

Because, though stationed on the important watch 

Thou, like 13 a sleeping, faithless sentinel 

Didst let them pass unnoticed, unimprov'd, 



§ 185, R. 1. 


6 § 231, R. 5. 


10 § 277. 


§ 258, R. 7, 


7 § 261. 


11 § 499. 1. 


§ 173. 3. 


8 § 179, R. 15. 


12 § 499. 8. 


§ 147, R 10. 


9 § 277, Rule I. 


13 § 499. 2 


§ 147, R. 8. 







19* 



222 § 269. Syntax — exercises. 

And know, for that 1 thou slumb'rest 2 on the guard, 

Thou shalt be made to answer at the bar 

For every fugitive ; and when thou thus 

Shalt stand impleaded at the high tribunal 

Of hood- wink' d justice, 3 who shall tell thy audit ? 

Cotton. 



At midnight (when mankind is wrapt in peace 

And worldly fancy feeds 4 on golden 4 dreams,) 

To give more dread to man's most dreadful hour ; 

At midnight, 'tis presumed this pomp will burst 

From tenfold darkness ; sudden as the ppark 

From smitten steel ; from nitrous grain, the blaze. 

Man starting from his couch, shall sleep no more. 

The day is broke, which never more shall close. 

Above, 4 around, 4 beneath, 4 amazement all, 

Terror 5 and glory 5 joined in their extremes ; 

Our God 6 in grandeur, and our world 6 on fire. 

All 6 nature 3 struggling in the pangs of death. 

Dost thou not hear her ? Dost 7 thou not deplore 

The strong convulsions, and her final groan ? 

Where are we now? Ah me ! the ground is gone 8 

On which we stood, Lorenzo, While thou mayst, 

Provide more firm support or sink forever. 

Where ? How ? From whence r 9 Vain hope ! It is too late ! 

Where, where, 10 for shelter shall the guilty fly, 

When consternation turns the good man pale. — Young. 



Having finished an arduous task, and the day being spent, 
we enjoy the luxury of a leisure evening ; and, to acknowledge 11 
the fact, we are happy to conclude our labors. 



One of the effects of envy, in respect to the object of it, is a 
busy, curious inquiry or prying into all the concerns of the per- 
son envied or maligned ; and this, no doubt, only as a step to 
those farther mischiefs, which envy assuredly aims at. For 
no man inquires into another's concerns, or makes it his busi- 

1 § 186, R 2. 5 § 179, R. 3. 9 § 265, R. 1. 

2 § 147, R.10. 6 § 232, R. 5. 10 § 265, R. 11. 

3 § 499,1. 7 § 147, R. 10. » § 263. 
* § 499,8. 8 § 127, R. 2. 



§ 269. Syntax — exercises. 223 

ness to acquaint himself with his privacies, but with a design to 
do him some shrewd turn or other. Such an eye is never idle, 
but always looking about to see where a man lies open to a 
blow. It is, withal, an indefatigable teller and hearer of base 
stories. It is this blessed quality, forsooth, that so insinuates 
into families, that puts them upon hiring servants to betray their 
masters, and inveigling one friend, if possibly they can, to sup- 
plant another ; it is this that listens at doors and windows, that 
catches at every breath or whisper that is stirring, etc. 

Detraction. We have already seen the first effort made by it, 
by an insidious diving into his (the envied person's) most secret 
affairs, and the next to this always works out at the mouth ; 
so that 1 if a man cannot overbear his neighbor by downright 
violence of action, he will attempt it at least by vilifying expres- 
sions, and that there may not want art, as well as malice, to 
carry on the attack more sure and home. Has a man done 
bravely, and got himself a reputation too great to be borne 
down by any base and direct aspersions ? Why then 2 envy 
will seemingly subscribe to the general vogue in most things, 
but then it will be sure to come over him again with a sly 
oblique stroke in some derogating [but] 3 or other, and so slide 
in some scurvy exception, which shall effectually stain all his 
other virtues. — South. 



And here it comes in one's way, to take notice of a manifest 
error, or mistake, in the author now cited, unless perhaps he 
has incautiously expressed himself, so as 4 to be misunderstood ; 
namely, " that it is malice only and not goodness, which can 
make us afraid." Whereas, in reality, goodness is the natural 
and just object of the greatest fear to an ill man. Malice may 
be appeased or satiated ; humor may change ; but goodness is 
a fixed, steady, immovable principle of action. If either of the 
former holds the sword of justice, there is plainly ground for the 
greatest crimes to hope for impunity. 

1 § 187, 11. 2. 2 § 187. 3 § 264, R. 6. 4 § 177. 



224 §§ 270 — 272. Prosody— punctuation. 



PART IV. 

PROSODY. 

<§> 270. Prosody teaches the rules of Punctuation, 
Utterance, Figures and Versification. 

PUNCTUATION. 

<§> 271. u Punctuation is dividing a written composi- 
tion into sentences, or parts of sentences, by points or 
stops, for the purpose of marking the different pauses 
which the sense and a correct pronunciation require. 

Remark, Punctuation is a modern art. The ancients were 
entirely unacquainted with the use of our commas, colons, etc. ; 
and wrote not only without any distinction of members and pe- 
riods, but also without distinction of words ; which custom con- 
tinued till the year 360 before Christ. How the ancients read 
their works, written in this manner, it is not easy to conceive. 
After the practice of joining words together had ceased, notes 
of distinction were placed at the end of every word. This 
practice, with some variation, continued a considerable time. 

As it appears that the present usage of stops did not take 
place, whilst manuscripts and monumental inscriptions were 
the only known methods of conveying knowledge, we must 
conclude that it was introduced with the art of printing. The 
introduction was, however, gradual ; all the points did not ap- 
pear at once. The colon, semicolon and note of admiration, 
were produced some time after the others. The whole set, as 
they are now used, came to be established, when learning and 
refinement had made considerable progress." — Murray's Gram. 
p. 266. 

<§> 212. The principal marks used in punctuation are 
the following ; as, 

1. The Comma [ , ] which denotes the shortest pause. 

2. The Semicolon [ ; ] which denotes a pause double that of 
a comma. 

3. The Colon [ : ] which denotes a pause double that of a 
semicolon. 



§ 273. Prosody — punctuation. 225 

4. The Period [ . ] which denotes a pause double that of a 
colon. 

5. The time denoted by the other marks, the Point of Inter- 
rogation [?] and of Exclamation [!], the Dash [ — ] and the 
Parenthesis [( )], varies according to the structure of the sen- 
tence, and their place in it. The time denoted by them may 
be equal to that of any of the preceding signs. 

COMMA. 

<§> 273. The comma generally separates those parts 
of a sentence which, though very closely connected in 
sense and construction, require a slight pause between 
them. 

Rule I. 
A short simple sentence is not generally separated by 
the comma ; as, " The fear of the Lord is the begin- 
ning of wisdom." " God rules over all." 

Remark. When the nominative in a long sentence is fol- 
lowed by two or more inseparable qualifying terms, the com- 
ma should be put before the verbs ; as, " The good taste of the 
present age, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the 
English language." 

False Punctuation, 

The intermixture of evil, in human society, serves to exer- 
cise the suffering graces, and virtues of the good. The friend 
of order, has made half his way to virtue. The tear of repent- 
ance, brings its own relief. All finery, is a sign, of littleness. 
Slovenliness, and indelicacy of character, commonly go hand 
in hand.' 

Rule IT. 

The members of a compound sentence, whether com- 
pletely or partially expressed, should generally be sepa- 
rated by the comma ; as, " When our vices leave us, 
we flatter ourselves, we leave them." " James, when 
he saw his brother, ran and embraced him." " Such 
events have occurred, and will again." " As thy days, 
so shall thy strength be." 



226 § 273. Prosody — punctuation. 

Rem. L When a member of a compound sentence is con- 
tained in another member, it is separated by the comma ; as, 
" Very often, while we are complaining of the vanity and the 
evils of human life, we make that vanity and increase those 
evils." 

Rem. 2. When verbs of the same construction are closely 
connected by conjunctions, or connective adverbs, the members 
of the compound sentence are not separated by commas ; as, 
"Learning enlarges and enriches the mind." "He is in fault 
as ivell as I." " John learns faster than his brother." " I know 
not whether he has left or not." 

Rem. 3. When a relative pronoun restricted in its meaning, 
immediately follows its antecedent, the members are not sepa- 
rated by a comma ; as, " The things which are seen are temporal, 
but the things which are not seen are eternal." 

False Punctuation. 

Gentleness is in truth the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. 
The tutor by instruction and discipline lays the foundation of 
the pupil's future honor. Trials in this stage of being are the 
lot of man. 

Rule III. 

Two words of the same construction, closely con- 
nected by a conjunction expressed, should not gen- 
erally be separated by the comina ; but if the conjunc- 
tion is not expressed, they are usually separated ; as, 
" Falsehood and truth are opposed to each other." 
" Poetry pleases and instructs." " Yicm and J will go." 
"- He is wise and generous." " The book was revised 
carefully and critically." " He spoke promptly and 
decidedly." 

Remark. Words of the same construction, having two or 
more qualifying terms, though connected by a conjunction, are 
separated by a comma ; as, " Wisdom in planning, and efficiency 
in executing, are very important in the business of life." 

False Punctuation. 

Presumption, and obstinacy, blast the prospect of many a 
youth. We have no reason to complain of the lot of man or of 



§ 273. Prosody — punctuation. 227 

the world's mutability. John, and James, went to the theatre 
last evening. Oxygen, and nitrogen, are the components of air. 

Rule IV. 

When more than two words after the same construc- 
tion are connected by conjunctions expressed or under- 
stood, those should be separated by commas, which are 
not connected by conjunctions expressed ; as, " Un- 
governed passions are the storms, the tempests and 
the hurricanes of the soul.' 5 " He, you and I have 
each much responsibility in this matter." " He acted 
wisely , prudently and efficiently." 

False Punctuation. 

In our health life possessions connections pleasures there are 
causes of decay imperceptibly working. Discomposed thoughts 
agitated passions and a ruffled temper poison every pleasure of 
life. Vicissitudes of good and evil of trials and consolations 
fill up the life of man. Health and peace a moderate fortune 
and a few friends sum up all the undoubted articles of tempo- 
ral felicity. 

Rule V 

When words are connected in pairs, the pairs only 
should be separated by commas ; as, "Pride and ambi- 
tion, envy and malice, have blighted the most thriving 
hopes." 

False Punctuation. 

Justice and truth candor and plainness were the principal 
characteristics of his speech. Beauty and humor elegance and 
wit were finely developed in the picture. 

Rule VI. 

Nouns in apposition, when accompanied by qualify- 
ing terms should be separated by a comma ; as, ;i Lu- 
ther, the great reformer of the church." " John Tyler, 
the President of the United States, vetoed the Bank 
Bill, August 16, 1841." 



228 § 273. Prosody — punctuation. 

Rem. 1. When two nouns in apposition follow the verbs 
which signify to name or call, to render or constitute, to reckon 
or esteem ; they are not separated by a comma ; as, " They 
made him President." 

Rem. 2. When a proper and common noun are closely joined 
and have no qualifying terms, they are not separated by a com- 
ma ; as, " John the Evangelist" " River St. Lawrence" 

Rem. 3. When a pronoun is annexed to a noun for the sake 
of intensity, it is not separated from it by a comma ; as, I my- 
self have done it." 

False Punctuation, 

The patriarch Joseph is an illustrious example of chastity re- 
signation and filial affection. Content the offspring of virtue 
dwells both in retirement and in the active scenes of life. Con- 
fucius the great Chinese philosopher was example good as well 
as wise. Hope the balm of life soothes us under every mis- 
fortune. You, yourself, are the only one to be blamed. And 
they crowned him, emperor. 

Rule VII. 

When a finite verb is understood, a comma is in- 
serted ; as, " Homer was the greater genius; Virgil, 
the better artist." — Pope. " From law arises security ; 
from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, knowledge." 

False Punctuation. 

Providence never intended that any state here should be either 
completely happy or entirely miserable. If the spring put forth 
no blossoms in summer there will be no beauty and in autumn 
no fruit. So if youth be trifled away without improvement man- 
hood will be contemptible and old age miserable. As a com- 
panion he was severe and satirical ; as a friend captious and 
dangerous; in his domestic sphere jealous and irascible. 

Rule VIII. 

When the infinitive is separated from its governing 
word by a sentence or clause, a comma should be in- 
serted before it ; as, " He traversed hills and dales, 
to gratify his taste for scenery." 



§ 273. Prosody — punctuation. 229 

Rem. 1. When the infinitive is absolute, it is separated from 
the sentence by a comma ; as, " To conclude, he amused his 
audience with a happy combination of wit and sarcasm." 

Rem. 2. Where the infinitive is used as a verbal noun it is 
set ofFby a comma, if it has two or more qualifying terms; as, 
" To see the sun in all its richness and splendor, is pleasant." 

Rem. 3. When the verb to be is followed by a verb in the in- 
finitive mode, which by transposition, might be made the nom- 
inative case to it, the former is generally separated from the 
latter by a comma ; as, " The first and most obvious remedy 
against the infection, is, to withdraw from all associations with 
bad men." 

False Punctuation. 

The greatest misery that we can endure is to be condemn- 
ed by our own hearts. The highest enjoyment that Charles 
ever experienced was to relieve the distressed and to do good. 
To enjoy present pleasure he sacrificed his future e-ase and re- 
putation. To prevent further altercation I submitted to the 
terms proposed. Charles having been deprived of the help of 
his tutors his studies became totally neglected. 

Rule IX. 

A comma is often used to denote contrast, antithe- 
sis, or strong emphasis ; as, " Prosperity gains friends, 
and adversity tries them." :i Though deep, yet clear ; 
though gentle, yet not dull." 

False Punctuation. 

He who is a stranger to industry may possess but cannot en- 
joy. It is the province of superiors to direct of inferiors to 
obey ; of the learned to be instructive of the ignorant to be do- 
cile ; of the old to be communicative of the young to be atten- 
tive and diligent. An inquisitive and meddling spirit often 
interrupts the good order and breaks the peace of society. 

Rule X. 

When participles or adjectives are followed by terms 
that depend upon them, they are generally separated 

20 



230 § 273. Prosody — punctuation. 

from the rest of the sentence by a comma ; as, " Ap- 
proving the plan, the king put it in execution. 

Remark. When they have the import of a dependent clause, 
or refer to some noun understood, they should be set off by a 
comma ; as, " United, we stand, divided, we fall." " Consider- 
ing all things, it has happened well" 

False Punctuation. 

The path of piety and virtue pursued with a firm and con- 
stant spirit will assuredly lead to happiness. What can be said 
to alarm those of their danger who intoxicated with pleasures 
become giddy and insolent ; who flattered by the illusions of 
prosperity make light of every serious admonition which their 
friends and the changes of the world give them ? 

Rule XL 

Adverbs and modifying clauses are usually separated 
from the context by a comma, when they interrupt the 
connection of the sentences, or are not placed in im- 
mediate connection with the word they qualify ; as, 
" He feared want, hence, he over-valued riches." " Fi- 
nally, I shall only repeat what has been often said just- 

ly." 

False Punctuation. 

Sometimes timidity and false shame prevent our opposing 
vicious customs ; frequently expectation and interest impel too 
strongly to comply. Here every thing is in stir and fluctua- 
tion ; there all is serene and orderly. Be assured then that or- 
der frugality and economy are the necessary supports of every 
personal and private virtue. 

Rule XII. 

When the conjunctions are separated from the prin- 
cipal clauses connected by them, or when they intro- 
duce an example, they are set off by a comma; as, 
" They set out early, and, before the close of the day, 
arrived at the destined place." 



273. Prosody — punctuation. 231 



False Punctuation, 

Gentleness delights above all things to alleviate distress; 
and if it cannot dry up the falling tear to sooth at least the 
grieving heart. If from any internal cause a man's peace of 
mind be disturbed in vain we load him with riches or honors. 

Rule. XIII. 

Terms of address and words of others repeated, but 
not introduced as a quotation, are separated by a com- 
ma ; as, " Wherefore, sirs, be of good cheer." "My 
son, hear the counsel of thy father." " Thus shalt 
thou say to the children of Israel, I AM hath sent me 
unto you" 

False Punctuation, 

Continue my dear children to make virtue your principal 
study. Come then companion of my toils let us take fresh 
courage persevere and hope to the end. To you my worthy 
benefactors am I indebted under Providence for all that I en- 
joy. Canst thou expect thou betrayer of innocence to escape 
the hand of vengeance ? 

Rule XIV. 

In superscribing letters or packages, a comma should 
be placed after the name of the person, town and coun- 
ty, and a period after the name of the State ; as, 
"' Mr. Chester Spencer, 
Castleton, 

Rutland County, 

Vermont.* 1 

Remark. In every case a period should be placed after the 
last term of the superscription, whether it be the name of the 
person, town, county or State. 

Rule XV. 

When prepositions are not placed in immediate com- 
munication with the terms on which they depend, or 



232 § 274. Prosody — punctuation. 

their objects, they are set off by a comma ; as, " In the 
most of his views, he is correct." " Many States were 
in alliance with, and under the protection of, Rome." 

False Punctuation. 

Good men in this frail imperfect state are often found not 
only in union with but in opposition to the views of one an- 
other. 

Rule XVI. 

When words are emphatically expressed, they are 
separated by the comma ; as, " Nay, nay, nay ; no, 
no, no." " Oh ! happy, happy, happy" 

SEMICOLON. 

<§> 274. The semicolon is used to divide the clauses 
of a period which are less closely connected than such 
as are divided by the comma, and more closely con- 
nected than such as are separated by a colon. 

Rule I. 

General divisions of a compound sentence, each sep- 
arated more or less by commas, should be distinguished 
by the semicolon ; as, "The desire of approbation, 
when it works according to reason, improves the ami- 
able part of our species in every thing that is lauda- 
ble ; so, nothing is more destructive to them, when it is 
governed by vanity and folly." 

False Punctuation. 

That darkness of character where we can see no heart those 
foldings of art through which no native affection is allowed to 
penetrate present an object unamiable in every season of life 
but particularly odious in youth. As there is a worldly happi- 
ness which God perceives to be no other than disguised misery 
as there are worldly honors which in his estimation are re- 
proach so there is a worldly wisdom which in his sight is fool- 
ishness. 



§ 274. Prosody — punctuation. 233 



Rule II, 

Two or more simple sentences, in each of which, the 
subject and verb are expressed and dependent by 
means of a pronoun, may be separated by semicolons ; 
as, " She hath killed her beasts ; she hath mingled her 
wine ; she hath also furnished her table." — -Bible. 

False Punctuation. 

To give an early preference to honor above gain when they 
stand in competition to despise every advantage which cannot 
be attained without dishonest arts to brook no meanness and to 
stoop to no dissimulation are the indications of a great mind 
the presages of future eminence and usefulness in life. 

Rule in. 

The semicolon is placed before as, when it intro- 
duces an example, and before for, when it is used as a 
conjunction ; as, " Blessed are the merciful ; for they 
shall obtain mercy." — Bible. 

False Punctuation. 

The nominative case governs the verb as the horse runs. 
He acted unwisely for the circumstances of the case were evi- 
dent. He was very unhappy for the misfortune came upon 
him quite unexpectedly. 

Rule IV. 

When words in apposition, require a longer pause 
than a comma, the semicolon may be used ; as, " Verbs 
have four modes ; the indicative ; the subjunctive ; the 
imperative, and the infinitive." " Nouns have three 
genders ; the masculine ; the feminine, and the neu- 
ter." 

False Punctuation. 

There are six tenses the present the imperfect the perfect the 
pluperfect and the first and second future. 

20* 



234 § 275. Prosody — punctuation. 



COLON. 

<§> 275. The colon divides those parts of a compound 
sentence less closely connected than such as are sepa- 
rated by a semicolon, and not generally so dependent 
as those connected by a period. 

Rule I. 

The colon is used when the preceding clause is so 
complete as to admit of a period, but something is add- 
ed for the purpose of illustration ; as, " A brute arrives 
at a point of perfection which he can never pass : in a 
few years he has all the endowments he is capable of : 
and were he to live ten thousand more, would be the 
same thing he is at present." — Spectator. 

False Punctuation. 

The three great enemies to tranquillity are vice superstition 
and idleness vice which poisons and disturbs the mind with 
bad passions superstition which fills it with imaginary terrors 
idleness which loads it with tediousness and disgust. 

Rule II. 

When a quotation is introduced which does not de- 
pend on a verb or conjunction, a colon is inserted ; as, 
" These were about the last words of an infidel : ' I 
take a fearful leap in the dark. 5 " 

False Punctuation. 

Philip III. king of Spain when he drew near the end of his 
days seriously reflecting on his past life and greatly affected 
with the remembrance of his misspent time expressed his deep 
regret in these terms " Ah ! how happy would it have been for 
me had I spent in retirement these twenty-three years that I 
have possessed my kingdom." All our conduct towards men 
should be influenced by this important precept " Do unto others 
as you would that others should do unto you." 



§ 276. Prosody — punctuation. 235 



Rule in. 

A compound sentence which has been separated by 
the semicolon, and which requires a greater pause than 
the semicolon, yet less than a period, may be pointed 
by a colon ; as, 

u In faith and hope the world will disagree ; 
But all mankind's concern is charity : 
All must be false that thwarts this one great end ; 
And all of God, that bless mankind or mend." 

PERIOD. 

<§> 276. The period is put after a complete and inde- 
pendent sentence. It is placed at the close of a dis- 
course, chapter, and section. 

Rule I. 

When a sentence is independent with respect to its 
meaning and construction, the period should be put at 
its close ; as, " Fear God." " Honor the king." " Have 
charity towards all men." 

False Punctuation. 

The resources of virtue remain entire when the days of trou- 
ble come with us in sickness as in health in poverty as in the 
midst of riches in our dark and solitary hours no less than when 
surrounded with friends and cheerful society the mind of a 
good man is a kingdom to him and he can always enjoy it. 

Rule II. 

The period is often placed at the close of a sentence, 
which has a general connexion, expressed by a pro- 
noun, conjunction or adverb ; as, " He who lifts him- 
self up to the observation and notice of the world, is, 
of all men, the least likely to avoid censure. For he 
draws upon himself a thousand eyes, that will narrowly 
inspect him in every part." 



236 § 277. Prosody — punctuation. 



False Punctuation. 

Recreations, though they may be of an innocent nature re- 
quire steady government to keep them under control or within 
a due and limited province but such as are of an irregular and 
vicious kind are not to be governed but to be banished from 
every well regulated mind. 

Rule IH. 

The period is placed after initials ; as, M. T. C. for 
Marcus Tullius Cicero. A. D. Anno Domini. And 
also after abbreviations ; as, Croc. Anglic, for Crocus 
Anglicanus. Sec. for secretary. 

False Punctuation. 

Constantine the great was advanced to the sole dominion of 
the Roman world A D 325 and soon after openly professed the 
christian faith. The last edition of that valuable work was 
carefully compared with the original M S. The general P O 
is in a sad condition. 

DASH. 

§ 277. The dash denotes an emphatic or abrupt 
pause of indefinite length. 

Rule. I. 

The dash is used when there is an unexpected turn 
of sentiment ; as, 

u Here lies the great — false marble where ? 
Nothing but sordid dust lies here." — Young. 

" If thou art he— but how fallen !" 

False Punctuation. 

li I'll live to-morrow" will a wise man say 
To-morrow is too late then live to-day." 

Beauty and Strength combined with Virtue and Piety how 
lovely in the sight of men how pleasing because with every 
Temptation to deviate they voluntarily walk in the path of duty. 



§ 278. Prosody — punctuation. 237 



Rule IT. 

The dash after a stop, requires a longer pause than 
when it is used alone. 

Rule III. 

The sense alone can determine the length of the 
time which should be employed in the use of the dash. 

Rule IV. 

The dash is sometimes used instead of a parenthesis ; 
as, " Every planet — the Creator has made nothing in 
vain — is most probably inhabited." 

NOTE OF INTERROGATION. 

$ 278. The note of interrogation denotes a ques- 
tion. 

Rule I. 

All questions asked directly are followed by the note 
of interrogation ; as, " How long, ye simple ones, will 
ye love simplicity ?" 

Remark. This rule comprehends questions which one may 
ask himself, as well as those he may ask others; as, "Who 
adorned the heavens with such exquisite beauty ?" 

False Punctuation. 

Gripus has long been ardently endeavoring to fill his chest 
and lo it is now full Is he happy and does he use it Does he 
gratefully think of the Giver of all good Things Does he 
distribute to the Poor Alas these Interests have no Place in 
his breast 

Rule II. 

When a compound sentence contains two or more 
questions closely united ; they may be separated by a 
comma or semicolon, and a note of interrogation is put 
after the last one ; as, " Who is the king, or what has 
he done ?" 



238 § 279. Prosody — punctuation. 



False Punctuation. 

What is there in all the pomp of the world the Enjoyments 
of Luxury the Gratification of Passion comparable to the tran- 
quil delight of a good Conscience 

Rule ILL 

The note of interrogation should not be used when 
a question is only said to be asked, and where the 
words are not used as a question ; as, " The Cyprians 
asked me why I wept" 

Rule IV. 

In all cases in which a question is not put directly, 
the note of interrogation should not be used ; as, " I 
know not why he should abuse me thus." Such an ex- 
ample is called an indirect question. 

NOTE OF EXCLAMATION. 

<§> 279. The note of exclamation is used to denote 
strong or sudden emotion of the mind ; as, 

" Oh ! had we both our humble state maintained, 
And safe in peace and poverty remained !" 

u Hear me, O Lord ! for thy kindness is great I" 

Rule I. 

When an interrogative sentence expresses a strong 
or vehement emotion, the note of exclamation is put at 
its close ; " Who can fully express the goodness of our 
Creator !" " How much vanity in the pursuits of men !" 

False Punctuation, 

On the one Hand are the Divine Approbation and immortal 
Honor on the other remember and beware are the stings of 
Conscience and endless infamy 

" The bliss of man could pride that blessing find 
Is not to act or think beyond mankind" 

v Or why so long in life if long can be 
Lent Heav'n a parent to the poor and me " 



§ 280. Prosody — punctuation. 239 



PARENTHESIS. 

§ 280. The parenthesis includes a clause or sentence 
which contains some useful information, and which 
may be omitted without injury to the grammatical con- 
struction ; as, 

" Know then this truth, (enough for me to know,) 
Virtue alone is happiness below." 

" And was the ransom paid r It was; and paid — 
(What can extol his bounty more,) for thee." 

Remark. The clause or sentence included in the parenthe- 
sis, should be uttered more rapidly and with a lower tone than 
the principal sentence. 

Rule I. 

The parenthesis ends with the same kind of stop which 
the member has that precedes it, the note of interroga- 
tion and exclamation excepted. The point should be 
included within the parenthesis ; as, u Know ye not, 
brethren, (for I speak to them that know the law,) how 
that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he 
liveth ?" " While they w T ish to please, (and why should 
they not wish it,) they disdain dishonorable means." 

False Punctuation. 

"To gain a posthumous reputation is to save four or five let- 
ters for what is a name besides from oblivion." " He found 
them asleep again for their eyes were heavy." " It was repre- 
sented by an analogy oh how inadequate which was borrowed 
from the religion of paganism. 

OTHER CHARACTERS. 

Rule I. 

<§> 281. [ ? ] The apostrophe is a comma placed above 

a word and denotes either the possessive case of nouns, 

or the elision of one or more letters of a word ; as, " A 

mail's property" "A woman' 's ornament" 'Tis, 



240 § 281. Prosody — punctuation. 

for it is. ' Twas, for it was. Condemned, for con- 
demned. Thro\ for through. E'er, for ever. 

Rule II. 

[ A ] A caret resembles an inverted v, and shows where 
a letter, word or sentence should be inserted which 
has been accidentally omitted ; as, " I am delighted 

this 

with book. 57 

A 

Rule III. 

[ a ] The circumflex, like the caret, is an inverted v, 
and denotes that the vowel over which it is placed, has 
a broad sound ; as, " Eclat" 

Rule IV. 

[ - ] The hyphen is a short dash, and unites the sim- 
ple parts of a compound word ; as, pre-exist ence ; sing- 
song. Placed at the end of a line either in writing or 
printing, it shows that one or more syllables of a word 
are carried forward to the next line. 

Rule V. 

[ ] or [ # * # # ] The ellipsis is a long dash 

or a number of stars placed in succession, and denotes 

the omission of some letters or words ; as, The k g, 

for, the king. 

Rule VI. 

[ j ] The brace unites a triplet, or separate terms that 
have the same common relation. 

[<§>] The section marks the smaller divisions of a 
book or chapter. 

Rule VH. 

[ IF ] The paragraph denotes the beginning of a new 
subject, and is principally used in the bible. A para- 



§ 281. Prosody — punctuation. 241 

graph should be distinguished by beginning a new line 
and placing the first word a little before' or after the last 
word in the preceding paragraph. 

Rule VIII. 

[ * ] The star, [ f ] the obelisk, [ J ] the double dag- 
ger, [ ] the parallel, and also the letters of the alpha- 
bet, or numerical figures, refer to marginal notes. 

[ (XT' ] The index points to some remarkable pas- 
sage. 

Rule IX. 

( [ ] ) The crotchets usually inclose a word or sen- 
tence for the purpose of explanation, or for correcting 
mistakes ; as, " He [the king] is innocent." 

Rule X. 

[••] The diuresis consists of two points placed 
over the latter of two vowels, and shows that they are 
not a diphthong. 

[ "" ] The macron denotes that the vowel or syllable 
over which it is placed is long ; as, " A name" 

| The acute accent is turned to the left, and de- 
notes that the syllable over which it is placed requires 
the principal stress in pronunciation ; as, " agency, no- 
ble." This character is sometimes used as opposed to 
the grave accent, to denote a short syllable, or the ris- 
ing inflection. 

Rule XL 

| The grave accent points to the right, and is used 
in opposition to the acute, and denotes a long vowel, 
or the falling inflection. 

Rule XII. 

[ - ] The breve shows that the vowel over which it is 
placed is short. 

21 



242 §§ 282 — 285. Prosody — versification. 

Rule XIIL 

[ " " ] The quotation marks denote words, phrases 
or sentences, taken from another author. Two inverted 
commas are placed at the beginning of the word or 
sentence quoted, and two in the direct position at the 
close of it. A quotation within a quotation is set off 
by single commas. 

VERSIFICATION. 

<§> 282. Versification teaches the proper method ot 
constructing words into lines of correspondent length, 
in such a manner as to produce harmony by the regu- 
lar alternation of syllables differing in quantity. 

QUANTITY. 

<§> 283. The quantity of a syllable is the relative 
time occupied in pronouncing it. 

A syllable is either long or short. 

A long syllable requires double the time occupied in 
pronouncing a short one. 

Remark. In determining the quantity of syllables, the sound 
of the vowel or diphthong should not be regarded ; but the force 
of accent placed upon a syllable, requiring that the voice should 
be continued a longer or shorter time. 

\ 

RHYME. 

§ 284. Rhyme is the correspondence of the last syl- 
lable in one line to the sound of the last syllable in 
another. 

Remark. Blank verse, is verse without rhyme. 

POETICAL FEET. 

<§> 285. A poetical foot is a combination of two or 
more syllables of a certain quantity. 

AH feet in poetry consist of either two or three syl- 



§§ 286 — 291. Prosody — versification. 243 

lables. There are eight different feet used in poetry. 
Four have two syllables, and four have three. 

$ 286. FEET OF TWO SYLLABLES. 

Spondee . . . . two long ; as, pale moon. 

Trochee .... a long and a short ; as, hateful. 
Iambus .... a short and a long ; as, betray. 
Pyrrhic .... two short ; as, on the tall tree, 

§ 287. FEET OF THREE SYLLABLES. 

Dactyl ... a long and two short ; as, passible. 
Anapaest, . two short and one long ; as, contravene. 
Tribrach, . three short ; as, inimitable. 

Amphibrach, a short, a long and a short ; as, domestic 

METRE. 

$ 288. " Metre is an arrangement of syllables and 
feet according to certain rules." 

Metre is divided into Trochaic, Iambic, Dactylic. 
and Anapcestic. 

YERSE. 

<§> 289. U A verse is a certain number of feet arranged 
in a regular order and constituting a line in poetry." 

Rem. 1. Two verses are called a distich ; a half a verse, a 
hemistich. 

Rem. 2. A verse, with respect to the metres which it con- 
tains, may be complete, deficient or redundant. 

Rem. 3. A verse which is complete is aeatalectic 

Rem. 4. When a verse is wanting, it is called catalectic. 

Rem. 5. When a verse has a redundant syllable, it is called 
hyperrnetre. 

SCANNING. 

§ 290. Scanning is dividing a verse into the feet 
of which it is composed. 

TROCHAICAL VERSE. 
§ 291. In Trochaic verse the accent is laid upon the 



244 §*291. Prosody — versification. 

odd syllable. Single rhyme trochaic omits the final 
short syllable, that it may end with a long one. 

1. Trochaic of one foot. 

Ringing, 
Singing. 

2. Single Rhyme. 

Tumult | cease, 
Sink to | peace. 

3. Trochaic of two feet. 

On the | mountain, 
By a | fountain. 

4. Single Rhyme. 

In the | days of | old, 
Stories | plainly | told. 

5. Trochaic of three feet. 
When our | hearts are | mourning. 

6. Single Rhyme. 

Restless | mortals toil for nought, 
Bliss in | vain from | earth is | sought. 

7. Trochaic of four feet. 
Round us | roars the | tempest | louder. 

8. Single Rhyme. 

Idle, | after dinner, | in his chair, 
Sat a farmer | ruddy, | fat and fair. 

9. Trochaic of five feet. 

All that walk on foot or | ride in chariots, 
All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 

10. Trochaic of six feet. 

On a | mountain, stretch'd | beneath a | hoary | willow, 
Lay a | shepherd | swain and | view'd the | rolling billow, 



§ 292. Prosody — versification. 245 



IAMBIC VERSE. 

4> 292. In Iambic verse the accent should be laid on 
the even syllables. 

1 . Iambic of one foot 

How bright 
The light. 

2. Iambic of two feet 

What place | is here. 
What scenes | appear. 

3. Iambic of three feet 

In pla|ces far | or near 
Or fa|mous or | obscure. 

4. Iambic of four feet 

And may j at last my weary age 
Find out | the peaceful hermitage. 

5. Iambic of five feet 

Be wise | to-day, | 'tis mad|ness to defer, 
Next day | the fatal precedent | will plead. 

Remark. This is called heroic verse. In its simplest form 
it consists of five Iambuses ; but by the admission of other feet, 
as Trochees, Dactyls, Anapaests, etc. it is capable of many va- 
rieties. 

6. Iambic of six feet 

For thou | art but | of dust, | be humble and | be wise. 

7. Iambic of seven feet 

The Lord descended from above, and bow'd the heavens high. 

This was formerly written in one line, but now it is divided 
into two, the first containing four feet, the second three ; as, 

When all thy mercies, O my God ! 
My rising* soul surveys. 

21* 



246 §§ 293 — 295. Prosody — versification. 



§ 293. DACTYLIC VERSE. 

Remark. This kind of verse is not common. When it is 
pure Dactylic verse, the accent is laid on the first and the fourth, 
the seventh and tenth syllables. 

1. Dactylic of one foot. 

Fearfully, 
Tearfully. 

2. Dactylic of tivo feet. 

Free from sa | tiety 
Care and anx | iety. 

3. Dactylic of three feet. 

Ever sing | merrily, | merrily. 

4. Dactylic of four feet. 

Boys will an | ticipate, | lavish and | dissipate. 

§ 294. ANAPAESTIC VERSE. 

Remark. In this verse the accent is laid on every third syl- 
lable. The first foot of Anapaestic verse may be an Iambus. 

1. Anapastic of one foot. 

But in vain 
They complain. 

2. Anapatstic of two feet. 
When I look | on my boys 
They raise | all my joys. 

3. Anapatstic of three feet. 

O, ye woods | spread your bran | ches apace. 

4. Anapastic of four feet. 

May I gov | ern my pass j ions with ab | solute sway 
And grow wis | er and better as life | wears away. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

$ 295. Pronunciation consists in expressing words 
or sentences by the vocal organs. 



§§ 296, 297. Prosody— figures. 247 

Pronunciation comprehends accent, emphasis, pause 
and inflection. 

1. decent consists in laying a peculiar stress of voice on a 
particular letter or syllable in a word to distinguish it from 
others. 

Every word which has more than one syllable, has one of 
its syllables accented ; as, miserable. 

In a very long word a secondary accent is given to another 
syllable, for the sake of harmony and distinction ; as, y Amplifi- 
cation. 

2. Emphasis consists in laying a peculiar stress of voice on 
one or more words in a sentence to distinguish them from 
others. 

3. Pause, in reading or speaking, denotes a cessation of the 
voice a longer or shorter period according as the sense re- 
quires. 

4. Inflections are peculiar variations of the voice, made in 
passing from one note into another. 

The passage of the voice from a lower to a higher note, is 
called the rising inflection. The passage of the voice from a 
higher to a lower note is called the falling inflection. 

5. Tones are those modulations of the voice which depend 
very much upon the feelings of the speaker, and the sentiments 
he expresses. In order to be impressive, they should be nat- 
ural and adapted to the nature of the subject and the occasion. 

FIGURES. 

$ 296. Figures are intentional deviations from the 
regular form, construction and application of words. 
These figures may relate either to Etymology, Syntax 
or Rhetoric. 

FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 297. There are six principal figures of Etymology, 
Aphceresis, Syncope, Apocope, Tmesis, Diceresis and 
Synceresis. 

1. Aph&resis is the taking away a letter or syllable from the 
beginning of a word ; as, " His \gan" for " it is began." 

2. Syncope is the omission of some letter or syllable in the 
middle of a word ; as, groceries, med'eine. 



248 §§ 298, 299. Prosody— figures. 

3. Apocope is the omission of the final letter of a syllable 
a word ; as, tho\ th\ for though and the. 

4. Tmesis is the insertion of a word between the parts of a 
compound word ; as, " What course soever he may pursue." 

5. Di&resis shows that two vowels coming together, should 
not be considered a diphthong ; as, preeminent, coagulate. 

6. A Syn&resis denotes the contraction of syllables usually 
separated, into one ; as, loved, lov-ed. 

FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

<§> 298. There are three figures of Syntax ; Ellipsis, 
Pleonasm and Hyperbaton. 

1. Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words in a sen- 
tence, which are necessary to complete the construction, but 
not to express the meaning of the sentence ; as, " The joys 
and (the) sorrows of life." " What is your name ? [it is) John." 

2. Pleonasm is using a greater number of words than is ne- 
cessary to express the meaning ; as, " He spake with his voice." 

3. Hyperbaton is a transgression of the common order of 
words and clauses ; as, " Whom do men say that I am ?" " He 
wanders earth around." 

Remark. This figure may be introduced into animated dis- 
discourse, with much force, elegance and propriety ; but an em- 
phatic repetition of the same idea, in ordinary sentences, should 
in every case be avoided. 

FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

<§> 299. A rhetorical figure is an intentional devia- 
tion from the regular application of words. Figures of 
this kind are called tropes. There are fourteen rhetor- 
ical figures, Metaphor, Simile, Metonomy, Synechdo- 
che, Allegory, Irony, Hyperbole, Personification, 
Apostrophe, Interrogation, Ecphonesis, Vision, An- 
tithesis, Climax. 

1. " A Metaphor is the transferring of a word from the object 
to which it properly belongs, and applying it to another to which 
that object has some analogy ;" " as, " The field smiles." I 
will be unto thee a wall of fire round about, and a glory in the 
midst of her." " Thou art my rock and fortress." 



§ 299. Prosody — figures. 249 

2. Simile or comparison denotes that the resemblance between 
two objects is expressed in form, and extends farther than a 
metaphor admits ; as, " As the mountains are round about Je- 
rusalem, so the Lord is round about his city." "The actions 
of princes are like those great rivers, the course of which every 
one beholds, but their springs have been seen but by few." 

3. Metonomy is substituting the name of one object, for that of 
another to which it sustains certain relations ; as, the cause for 
the effect, the container for the thing contained, the property for 
the substance, the sign for the thing signified, and their con- 
traries ; as, " They read Milton." The cause put for the effect, 
" Gray hairs should be honored" " The kettle boils," the con- 
tainer for the thing contained. 

4. Synechdoche is putting a genus for a species, the whole for 
a part, a singular noun for a plural, the material for the thing 
made of it, and their contraries; as, "a fleet of twenty sail." 
Here sail is put for ships. The waves are often put for the 
sea. 

5. An allegory denotes a continued series of metaphors, used 
to represent and illustrate one subject by another which re- 
sembles it; as, " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt. Thou 
hast cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst 
room before it, and didst cause it to take deep root and it filled 
the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and 
the boughs thereof were like goodly cedars. She sent out her 
boughs into the sea, and her branches into the river." — Bible. 
Here the people of Israel are represented under the image of 
a vine. 

6. Irony denotes the intentional use of words expressing a 
meaning contrary to that which the writer or speaker intends 
to convey, not to deceive, but to give force to expression ; as, 
" Cry aloud : for he is a god : either he is talking, or he is 
pursuing, or he is on a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and 
must be waked." — Bible. Here the prophet Elijah challenged 
the priests of Baal to prove the truth of their deity, and ad- 
dressed them as above in ironic language. " O excellent inter- 
preter of the law ! master of antiquity ! corrector and mender 
of our constitution !" — Cicero for Balbus — deriding his accuser. 

7. Hyperbole is magnifying or diminishing a subject beyond 
the truth ; as, 

" Me miserable ! which way shall I fly 
Infinite wrath and infinite despair? 
Which way 1 fly is hell, myself am hell, 



250 § 299. Prosody — figures. 

And in the lowest depth, a lower deep 
Still threatening to devour me, opens wide, 
To which the hell 1 suffer seems a heaven." 

" I saw their chief tall as a rock of ice, his spear as a blasted 
fir, his shield the rising moon ; he sat on the shore like a cloud of 
mist on the hill !" — Ossiatfs description of the leader oj an enemy. 

8. Personification represents inanimate things as acting and 
speaking, and dead as alive and present ; as, " The earth smiles 
with plenty." " The ground thirsts for rain." " The moun- 
tains skipped like rams, and the little hills like lambs." — Bible. 

The following is a description of the effects of eating the 
forbidden fruit, 

" Earth trembled from her entrails as again 
In pangs, and nature gave a second groan ; 
Sky lowered, and muttYing thunder some sad drops 
Wept at completing of the mortal sin."— Milton. 

9. Apostrophe is turning from the regular course into an ani- 
mated address ; as, "Death is swallowed up in victory." "O, 
death ! where is thy sting ? O grave ! where is thy victory r" — 
Bible. 

10. Interrogation denotes an earnest question, and generally 
implies a strong affirmation to the contrary ; as, "Hast thou an 
arm like the Almighty ?" " Who by searching can find out 
God ?" " Who can find out the Almighty unto perfection ?" — 
Bible. 

II. Ecphonesis is a pathetic exclamation denoting a strong emo- 
tion of the mind; as, "O that my head were waters, and mine 
eyes a fountain of tears, that I might weep day and night for 
the slain of the daughter of my people !" — Bible. " O liberty ! 
O sound once delightful to every Roman ear !"-p Cicero. 

12. Vision is a figure by which the speaker represents the 
objects of his imagination as if they were actually passing be- 
fore his eyes ; as, " I seem to myself to behold this city, the 
ornament of the earth, and the capital of all nations, suddenly 
involved in one conflagration." — Cicero. 

13. Antithesis is placing things in opposition, to produce a 
greater effect by contrast ; as, 

" Tho' deep, yet clear ; tho' gentle, yet not dull." 

" If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase his stores, 
but to diminish his desires," 



§ 299. Prosody — figures. 251 

14. Climax is a figure in which the sentiment increases by 
successive degrees and becomes more and more interesting and 
important, or descends to the minutest particulars ; as, " It is a 
crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds, it is the height of guilt 
to scourge him, little less than parricide to put him to death : 
what name then shall I give to the aet of crucifying him." — 
Cicero, 



END. 



/ 



